Land subsidence is a well-known phenomenon that describes the progressive sinking of the ground surface relative to the sea level. In the Netherlands, the western and northern regions have experienced subsidence for centuries, due to the peat- and clay- rich subsurface, and a combination of natural processes and human activities. The evident outcomes of land subsidence include damage to structures and infrastructure, social unease and economic loss. In this context, individuals and public organizations are increasingly concerned with how subsidence impacts the built heritage.
The thesis focuses on two research areas: examining how soil heterogeneity affects settlements at the scale of structures, and developing statistical tools to estimate the probability of damage to unreinforced masonry structures affected by settlements. This includes integrating information from literature, measurements of existing structures, numerical modelling, and engineering judgement to achieve a better understanding of how subsidence processes impact structures.
For the soil heterogeneity aspect, an area in the Netherlands with available in-situ measurements was selected for analysis. The in-situ information served as input for numerical analyses designed to assess how variations in the thickness of soil layers might trigger or exacerbate spatially variable subsidence. The results of the analyses show that the spatial variability of soil layer thickness correlates with the spatial variability of the computed settlements from the numerical simulations. This suggests that the variability of the thickness of soil layers can cause differential settlement at the scale of structures, potentially leading to damage.
Regarding the probability of damage to masonry structures, the research incorporates both empirical and numerical data. First, damage surveys conducted on existing masonry structures in the Netherlands were collected. The collected information includes technical reports, photographs of the damage, and measurements of the buildings’ displacements caused by ground settlements. From these data, recurrent wall deformations were identified, including symmetric and asymmetric hogging and sagging settlement profiles. Analyses were carried out to retrieve probabilistic relationships between the intensity of the settlements and the probability of damage to structures.
The empirical insight was complemented by numerical analyses. Nonlinear finite element models were built to simulate the response of masonry structures to settlements. Initially, these simulations evaluated how various geotechnical and structural factors influence the vulnerability of buildings to settlements. The results confirm that building damage is significantly influenced by façade geometry in terms of length over height (L/H) ratio, masonry material properties and the shape of the settlement, and soil-structure interaction.
Additional numerical analyses were conducted to establish the probabilistic relationship between ground settlement intensity and structural damage probability, following a similar approach to the analyses based on empirical data. Overall, the developed fragility curves indicate that for a value of the angular distortion measured on the building equal to 1/500, the threshold recommended by international standards, one out of two buildings could exhibit cracks up to 5 millimeters.@en

In the center of Amsterdam there are historic quay walls that are more than 100 years old. Over the years, the load-bearing capacity of the quay walls decreased, and it is currently an important topic on how to strengthen these quay walls, but it is important as well to know which quay walls should be given preference for rehabilitation.

The engineering department of the municipality of Amsterdam, in collaboration with other parties, has drawn up a document Toetskader Amsterdamse Kademuren (TAK 3.2), which includes various aspects that contribute to the assessment of historic quay walls. In TAK 3.2, attention has of course been paid to the geotechnical aspects, whereby material model parameters have been determined for the Hardening Soil small strain model and the Soft Soil model. This study examines how the current parameter set in TAK 3.2 can be improved by selection of material model parameters and taking the material models into consideration as well in which the anisotropic Sekiguchi-Ohta model and the anisotropic S-Clay1 model are examined additionally.

Material model parameter sets have been compiled (with expected values) for the most influencing Holocene soil layers, such as Geulopvulling, Hollandveen and Oude zeeklei. These parameter sets have been validated and further optimized with the use of Plaxis SoilTest. The available laboratory results come from isotropically consolidated triaxial tests on Geulopvulling and Oude zeeklei, Direct simple shear (DSS) tests on Hollandveen and oedometer tests. Validation of the anisotropic models has therefore not been entirely possible for Geulopvulling and Oude zeeklei, but in the case of Hollandveen the assumption is made on K0-consolidation in the DSS test simulations, where the anisotropic models yield promising results.

Furthermore, according to the approach of TAK 3.2 in the staged construction of historic quay walls, various simulations are conducted for the assessment of historical quay walls with the Hardening Soil small strain model, Soft Soil model and S-Clay1 model, with different parameter sets. From these simulations, some good prospects are noted, such as the improvement in output results with the optimized parameter set compared to the parameter sets gathered from all laboratory data and TAK 3.2. In simulations in which the S-Clay1 model is considered in combination with the Hardening Soil small strain model and Soft Soil model, a significant decrease was noticed as well in the output results compared to simulations with exclusively the Hardening Soil small strain and/or Soft Soil model.

This study shows that the Hardening Soil small strain model as an isotropic model gives better results and fewer/no difficulties in the finite element method calculations compared to the Soft Soil model. It is further confirmed that calculating the initial phase with the K0-procedure with horizontal soil layers and surface is the best method in the case of the assessment of historic quay walls.

By understanding which differences are observed with different material models and parameter sets, this study contributes to sharpening future research to adequately analyze and assess historic quay walls in the center of Amsterdam.

Foundations of buildings ensure the safety and serviceability are upheld. A common type of
foundations used in the Netherlands is pile foundations which are typically founded on a thick sand layer in the subsurface. These pile foundations are the focus of this thesis and more specifically the methods used to design such foundations. This thesis aims to give a better understanding of the resistance of closed-ended piles in a layered soil by comparing existing pile design methods to the measured forces from the Drukpaal jacking machine. Drukpaal jacks precast concrete piles into the soil and the records collected give a valuable insight in the pile resistance in various locations and soil profiles with layered soil in the Netherlands.

The design of a pile foundations consists of the combination of two different types of methods. One will predict the base capacity of the pile foundations and the other will predict the shaft capacity. These two capacities together give the predicted bearing capacity of the pile. However, multiple base capacity and shaft capacity methods exist with varying influence zones and with that varying degrees of accuracy. In this thesis the different base and shaft capacity methods used are all based on the tip resistance as measured by a CPT. The following base capacity methods are included: Koppejan, LCPC, Filter method and the Filter method as adapted by Munta de Boorder (in this thesis referred to as the Munta de Boorder method). And for shaft capacity the NEN method and the ISO method are used.

This thesis aims to answer the following research question: What combination of capacity prediction methods for shaft and tip resistance works best to estimate the total force over depth as measured by Drukpaal?.
This question will be answered by a series of simulations of different projects completed by Drukpaal, which is a company which jacks piles into the ground and records the required force over depth.

The measurements and simulations for the various sites were compared both visually and
statistically. The Filter method with ISO gives the best visual fit.
For the statistical analysis the coefficient of variance (COV) is taken as well as the root mean squared error (RMSE) of the ratio line of the simulation (simulation divided by the measurement). Here the COV will account for the shape and the RMSE will account for the overall error. The sum of these two values is used to determine the best fit, since both of these values should be as small as possible. From this analysis it is found that Filter method in combination with ISO is overall the best combination, followed by Munta de Boorder with ISO and Filter method together with NEN.

The last aspect to be looked at is the location dependency of the combination of methods. From this it was found that the base capacity methods in combination with NEN vary a lot over the measured locations and these combinations are thus location dependent. For the base capacity, the LCPC method was also found to be location dependent in combination with ISO. So even though this combination worked really well for one of the projects (Gorinchem) it is not dependable to use because of the varying degrees of accuracy. The other three combinations; Koppejan, Filter method and Munta de Boorder together with ISO, were all found to be location independent. However, Koppejan with ISO garnered quite high values for RMSE and COV, meaning that this combination is not very accurate.

Overall, Filter method with ISO was found to give the best fit which was location independent. Munta de Boorder with ISO followed and Koppejan with ISO was found third best fit. The other combinations were found to be location dependent and thus are, based on the work in this thesis, less suitable for application in The Netherlands.

This thesis examines the load distribution on 60 m long piles under gradual static loading, considering the POST Rotterdam high-rise building as the study project. The research employs fibre optic (FO) instrumentation on site to monitor strain changes in the piles over time and assess load transfer mechanisms. This data is integrated into a Plaxis 3D model of the building's foundation to validate existing approaches on soil structure interaction (SSI), optimize SSI modelling, and assess the high-rise building's impact on nearby structures. Results show that at early stages, the resistance contribution comes from the shaft in contact with the Pleistocene sand layer. However, as loading progresses and the Kedichem clay layer consolidates, most of the resistance shifts to the tip and the shaft located in the deeper sands. The FO strain measurements follow a similar trend to the site stratigraphy, but there is high uncertainty about the results at early load stages. The latter requires further investigation to corroborate once the building is finalised. The piles were incorporated into the Plaxis 3D model by means of EBR with a layer-dependent force distribution. The resulting spring stiffness of various pile groups reveals the significance of the group effect. Regarding the impacts of POST loads on the adjacent Old Post Office building, an angular distortion of 1/555 in 50 years was obtained, which indicates a conservative result of slight damage in the structure. For the Timmerhuis building, a resulting angular distortion of 1/1428 indicates no damage. This study addresses gaps in understanding load distribution in 60 m long piles, offering a practical modelling approach and recommendations for future research. It contributes to optimizing design and safety protocols as the use of such piles becomes more common in Rotterdam. By utilizing advanced sensing techniques like FO, this research may lead to more accurate pile design and criteria, potentially reducing construction costs and enhancing safety for high-rise buildings and their surroundings.

This study focuses on the assessment of the reliability of the geobag wall system within the context of the Koningsgracht renewal project. The objective is to identify and understand the most sensitive phase during the project’s execution by conducting a comprehensive probabilistic analysis.

The geobag wall, a temporarily constructed component of Koningsgracht, emerges as the focal point of sensitivity in this study. Unlike other project elements, such as historic structures and conventional engineering components, the geobag wall possesses unique characteristics, notably its composition of individual geobags and the use of jute geotextile, which could result into individual instability.

The research delves into the analysis of failure mechanisms and limit states for the geobag wall, considering both the monolithic structure and potential local failures within its segments. The failure modes found include horizontal sliding, overturning and the rupture of the geotextile. Various parameters are examined to calculate factors of safety. To account for uncertainties inherent in geological and structural parameters, probabilistic methods are employed. Monte Carlo simulation and the First-Order-Second-Moment (FOSM) method are utilized to model the behavior of the geobag wall under different scenarios, encompassing a wide range of parameter combinations.

Correlations between parameters are introduced to simulate spatial variability, ensuring that the values of geological and structural factors align reasonably with one another. This approach reflects the real-world complexities of geotechnical systems. The analysis reveals intriguing results, with factors such as friction angle playing a significant role in horizontal sliding and overturning, while textile rupture remains relatively independent of geological parameters and heavily reliant on tensile strength of the jute geotextile. Additionally, wall dimensions, particularly height and width, are found to
exert a substantial influence on various failure modes.

Ultimately, the probabilistic analysis yields insights into the reliability of the geobag wall system. The study indicates a 1.625 · 10−4 probability of failure for the geobag wall system considering a Factor of Safety (FOS) of 1.0, aligning with the overall reliability of the Koningsgracht renewal method.

The inner-city of Amsterdam contains a large network of vulnerable, historic quay walls. Most of these quay walls consist out of masonry gravity walls placed on wooden relieving floors and wooden foundation piles. Due to the changing surface loading conditions behind the wall and the degradation of the masonry and wooden structures over the last century, the safety of the quay walls is in critical condition. Insight into the behaviour of the masonry wall tilt and its relationship with several failure mechanisms is still limited. Therefore, the objective of this thesis is to provide this insight into the behaviour of the tilt approaching failure in the center of Amsterdam. Additionally, the use of monitoring data from SmartBrick devices is analyzed to assess the value of quay wall inclination monitoring.

Using PLAXIS 2D, quay wall models are made aimed to create a sensitivity analysis towards the wall tilt using multiple variations in quay structure dimensions and parameters. These variations investigate the wall height, wall thickness, floor length (and the amount of pile rows), the canal depth and the pile diameters based on a typical Amsterdam soil profile. For the tested geometry variations, there is a linear relationship seen between the wall tilt and the horizontal wall displacement towards the canal, during the addition of the surcharge load behind the wall. The relationship between the wall tilt and the surcharge load is predominately linear at lower/realistic surface loads, at higher loads, towards failure, the wall tilt becomes exponentially larger, this is also seen by setting the varied dimensions towards failure scenarios. The most sensitive variations for inclination are the change in the masonry wall height and thickness, the pile distribution underneath the floor and the addition of a surcharge load directly behind the masonry wall.

The failure mechanism describing the horizontal displacement of the masonry wall and the piles is recognized by increasing the height of the masonry wall and by decreasing the pile diameters (pile degradation). By increasing the wall height, the quay structure also settles vertically, which in combination with the horizontal displacement, initiates wall tilt. During the addition of the surcharge load, the crossbeam (kesp) and the piles can deform, and their bending moments can exceed their bending capacity, indicating another failure mechanism with initiates wall tilt. The failure mechanism describing rotation of the masonry wall on the floor towards the canal is activated by decreasing the wall thickness and therefore decreasing its lateral capacity. This causes the masonry wall to fall over. Damage to the foundation elements has an important impact on the tilt of the wall, due extensive axial displacements of the front pile row or cracks in the masonry wall.

To compare the SmartBrick inclination and PLAXIS inclination, it is important to know the exact degradation, erosion and loading conditions during the time between two SmartBrick measurements. The linear relation between the wall inclination and the wall displacement is useful for SmartBrick because it shows that monitoring the inclination also predicts the wall displacement and the state of the quay wall. Pile degradation and canal erosion only give a small wall tilt increase, but a larger increase in horizontal displacement of the wall is seen. Therefore, high measuring accuracy and resolution are necessary to monitor only the wall tilt.

To conclude, approaching quay wall failure shows that wall tilt in combination with horizontal displacement is expected, this behaviour can be monitored using SmartBrick. High wall tilt is often a first consequence of the exceedance of the bending capacities in the wooden elements.

Inefficient installation of pile foundations may lead to high risks of material damage, inadequate pile capacity, and time delays that can have significant financial implications to any kind of project, both onshore and offshore. Therefore, there is high demand for a comprehensive driveability analysis that considers key aspects of the installation process, such as the soil conditions, the pile-soil interaction and efficiency of the driving equipment used.
The total resistance during pile driving is usually estimated through numerical simulation techniques based on the wave equation, whereby the main inputs are the hammer, pile and soil properties. Commercially available driveability software, such as AllWave PDP, enable the modelling of the hammer-pile-soil system and simulate the stress wave phenomena during the installation process. Moreover, these programs have an integrated database of a variety of hammer models (hydraulic, diesel and more) that are used in practice, and also static and dynamic parameters for a variety of soils.
One of the key aspects in which this Thesis focuses on, is the static component of the driving resistance, referred to as SRD. Over the years, various SRD models have been developed, with the aim of estimating the static soil resistance during driving, while the dynamic components of the total resistance (increasing resistance due to inertial and viscous rate effects) are commonly being quantified in terms of damping factors.
This Thesis investigates the performance of frequently used traditional driveability models, such as the Alm & Hamre (2001), Toolan & Fox (1977) and Stevens et al (1982), in predicting the SRD in dense sand conditions. Furthermore, it examines the application of the Unified Method in SRD estimations. The Unified Method is a recently developed static capacity design approach for driven piles in silica sand. This design method will be included in the forthcoming 2022 edition of the ISO guidelines and will replace the four CPT based design methods (ICP, UWA, NGI, Fugro).
The performance of the aforementioned models has been evaluated through predictions of blow count profiles by utilizing pile driving records from five sites in the Netherlands, namely the Eemshaven (project known as Euripides) and APM, RWG, SIF and HHT terminals in the Port of Rotterdam. The diameter of the open-ended steel tubular piles examined in this study, is 0.762 m for the Euripides project and 1.42 m for the rest of the projects.
This research, will eventually highlight advantages and disadvantages of the commonly used SRD models, while it will further prove that by modifying the Unified Method, overall better driveability predictions can be made for a larger range of pile diameters than the current methods. The gain is that on one hand, with improved driveability predictions it is possible to minimize installation risks, optimize driving acceptance criteria, and select an appropriate hammering equipment. On the other hand, having a set of formulas that can be used both in estimating the SRD, as well as the static axial capacity, can reduce the engineering effort.

The case study of the outer lock head of the New Terneuzen Lock is considered to investigate the behavior of the Boom Clay and to develop an automated method for improving the deformation predictions in a deep excavation format. The initiative to perform this study was the uncertainty in modeling the Boom Clay behavior during the design and the over-predictions of the combi wall deformations in the aftermath. The problem has been attributed to the constitutive soil model and soil properties used for that layer.

In the context of this thesis a Python - PLAXIS application has been developed, which facilitates an iterative method to determine the real soil properties of the Boom Clay layer based on inclinometer measurements of the wall throughout the construction stages. The monitoring data present the reality; hence the safety factors had to be filtered out of the design for the comparison with them to be applicable. Therefore, the mean (most probable) soil properties have been recalculated, and the as-build external loads, aquifer heads, structural elements, and phasing have been deciphered to create the Mean model. Using the Mean model, the most appropriate constitutive model and drainage conditions for the Boom Clay are determined. It has been concluded that the Hardening Soil small strain is the most appropriate constitutive model. Using the Mean model as initial input and the constitutive model conclusions, an iterative process on the relevant soil properties has been conducted to reach ±10% convergence with the corresponding monitoring deformations. The Fine Tuned model uses the soil properties derived by the iterative method to represent reality with the highest accuracy and reaches, on average, 45 % more precision on the prediction of the deformation in comparison to the monitoring data than the Mean model.

Using the Fine Tuned model, sensitivity analysis of the wall to Boom Clay’s soil properties is performed. It revealed that φ′ had the highest impact relative to the other properties. Scenarios with thinner Boom Clay layers have been tested due to the relevant wedging geometry it follows in the project location. Additionally, the Fine Tuned model has been used to improve the prediction of future stages with data derived from earlier monitoring. The example studied was able to improve the prediction by 87 % in comparison to the initial design. In comparing the Design model with the Fine Tuned model, a problem with the anchor wall behavior is discovered that is attributed to the inability of PLAXIS to consider the shaft friction of the anchor rods. The Fine Tuned model, in combination with the fixity solution, allowed for an improvement in deformation accuracy of up to 95 %.

It is concluded that the actual design, despite over-predicting its deformations, produced a retaining wall validated by the Fine Tuned model. It is suggested that the Python Application should be used alongside the traditional designing process and in site engineering to reduce the risk by simulating the actual behavior and limits of the retaining wall.

Over the past decades an increase in underground construction is observed. Deep excavations are among the structures used for underground construction. The construction of such structures often affects nearby existing structures and causes possibly even damages.
The prediction of these damages is usually done by following these steps:
1. Determining the free-field ground displacements
2. Imposing the displacements on the structure
3. Determining the deformations of the structure
4. Assess potential damages following these deformations
The ground and the structure are often modelled separately taking no (LTSM) or a factor (Relative Stiffness Method) into account for interaction between soil and structure. Taking no interaction into account is particularly conservative when looking at vertical displacements. The non-linear behaviour of structural elements is neglected by these methods. This could lead to errors when assessing deformations of a masonry building due to the extreme non-linear behaviour of masonry structures.
The objective of this thesis is to get a better understanding of the effect of deep excavations on adjacent (piled buildings) by using integrated 2D modelling. This is done by remodelling the construction of the building pit in PLAXIS.
Based on the analysis performed in Section 4 the load on the pile is the largest contributor to the vertical and horizontal displacements of the pile relative to the soil around the pile. The diameter and stiffness of the pile are also very important factor determining the vertical movement of the pile.
The difference in the soil between a free-field situation and a situation with foundation piles (and a building) the piles stiffen the soil around the piles. Especially, when these piles are in a group. This effect increases when the piles are coupled by a structure. Vertical displacements are more smeared out over the length of the pile. This is less the case for horizontal displacements. Foundation piles undergo negative skin friction as a result of the settlements of the upper soil layers leading to stress in the soil beneath the pile tip. The stress in the soil beneath piles increases with increasing load and skin friction on the pile. This increased stress results in more horizontal stress, which in close proximity to a retaining wall could lead to increased deformations in the retaining wall and therefore the soil.
The results of the numerical calculations and the analytic calculations are analysed and compared in Section 6. In the numerical models both linear elastic as non-linear material properties have been assigned to the masonry building façade in different models. The numerical model with linear elastic material properties for masonry showed stiff response of the building to the induced soil deformations, underestimating the potential damages. The numerical model with non-linear material properties assigned to masonry showed more realistic results. These results are in line with the established analytical models.
Integrated numerical modelling could be a viable solution for future projects where potential building damage is assessed next to deep excavation. it could help to identify weak points within a structure which need addressing during the construction of an adjacent deep excavation. This study has shown that it is possible to do damage assessment in a fully integrated model. The important factors in assessing such projects are the overall soil deformation. Secondly, the relation between the soil and foundation of the structure needs to be analysed. Thirdly, the interface between the foundation and the structure is important.

Reliability analysis is a rational method for dealing with uncertainties. It is increasingly used for the design and assessment of (civil) structures. Reliability analysis, possibly in combination with performance data, allows for instance to update (extend) the lifetime of existing quay wall structures. This gives economic advantages when assessing quay walls, figuring there are thousands of kilometres of quay walls worldwide. Soil-structure analysis (e.g. analysis of quay walls) is however complex and in general requires finite element (FE) models. Conventional reliability methods are mostly incapable of dealing with FE models because they have long (infeasible) calculation times e.g. Monte Carlo, or they cannot deal with the typical noisy and incomplete FE model output e.g. FORM. One way of dealing with these challenges is by using a metamodelling approach, i.e. build up and make use of a response surface on a limited number of model evaluations. One specific application which uses metamodelling is ERRAGA, which is an abbreviation for Efficient and Robust Reliability Analysis for Geotechnical Applications. This thesis investigates the potential of ERRAGA/metamodelling for reliability analysis of quay walls in engineering practice.\medskip

In this thesis ERRAGA is tested on two realistic case studies located in the port of Rotterdam. The first case is called the ‘Sleepbootkade’, a quay constructed from a combi wall with anchors. The second case study is called the HHTP-quay, a combi wall with relieving platform and MV-piles. In the first case focus is placed on getting to understand the details and workings of the ERRAGA method. In the second case focus has been put on the creation of the reliability model and the practical applicability of ERRAGA using the experiences of the first case. Two critical limit states are tested within the case studies: wall failure in bending and geotechnical failure. Especially the limit state geotechnical failure is challenging as relevant output parameters are known to be noisy and/or incomplete.\medskip

The main finding of this thesis is that reliability analysis of quay walls using ERRAGA in combination with a numerical model shows good potential. ERRAGA can generate reliable and accurate results within only hundreds of realizations, hereby overcoming the main drawbacks of existing reliability methods. Main drawback of the ERRAGA method seems to be its inherent complexity and ‘black box’ nature. For the user to employ the full potential of the method some more in depth knowledge and especially the user-defined settings are required. Based on the gained experiences in this thesis some first recommendations are presented for the use and application of ERRAGA in projects.

Almost 4000 MV piles are used as anchorage of quay walls in the port of Rotterdam. The current design method of MV piles in Dutch practice is a CPT-based method that correlates the cone resistance to the shaft friction by a factor α_t. In the port of Rotterdam, the cone resistance is restricted under the assumption that no shaft resistance higher than 250 kPa is mobilised. Consequently, α_t is used in combination with a limiting value for the cone resistance of 18 MPa. Moreover, the value of α_t that is currently used in the port of Rotterdam (1.4%) is derived after limiting the cone resistance at 18 MPa. Since this design method was developed in the 1980s', many more MV piles were tested in the port of Rotterdam. The maximum test load was generally at least two times the characteristic value of the required anchor force. None of these full-scale tests were loaded up to failure and no significant creep effects were observed. Consequently, the design standard was never updated as ultimate bearing capacity remained undetermined. Recently, the Port of Rotterdam has executed failure load tests in the Maasvlakte area. The tests allowed detailed strain readings along the full length of the test piles and offer the possibility to accurately determine the local mobilisation of shaft friction in addition to the ultimate failure load. Apart from describing the successful instrumentation with BOTDA fiber optical sensors (Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis), this study addresses the assessment of the obtained data in detail. Multiple relations are considered in this thesis. Analysis of CPT's indicates an increase in cone resistance due to pile installation. Investigation of pile driving data shows that installation energy correlates well with the cone resistance. Soil-structure interaction is analysed and a mobilisation curve is composed. This curve illustrates that mobilisation of shaft friction as a function of displacement of MV (tension) piles is similar to the Dutch standard for small and non-displacement compression piles. This thesis presents proof that limiting the cone resistance based on a maximum shaft friction of 250 kPa is not correct. The derivation of α_t without limiting the cone resistance results in a value of 1.2%. Installation energy proves to be a good indicator of the soil conditions. The piles that give good predictions for the bearing capacity with α_t = 1.2% present similar ratio's between the installation energy and the cone resistance. Future research may establish a consistent relation between CPT-based bearing capacity and pile driving energy to reduce uncertainty. This thesis will contribute to an update on the design method for MV-piles in dense sand layers of the Maasvlakte area.

This research looked into the influence of negative skin friction on timber piles in Amsterdam. Tensile load tests were performed on new, instrumented timber piles at Overamstel in Amsterdam. The negative skin friction calculated from the test data was compared to the negative skin friction from NEN 9997-1 for a single pile. The test results came close to the values from NEN 9997-1. A reduction of the factor required for timber piles when calculating negative skin friction using NEN 9997-1 seems necessary, but further studies are needed.

Alpha factors were derived from the test data, and comparison to the alpha factors from compression load tests confirmed the influence of tapering on the timber piles.

The research also confirmed the suitability of fibre optic sensors for pile load tests on timber piles.

Many quay walls in Amsterdam have surpassed their structural lifetime and have started showing signs of damage. The city of Amsterdam is currently tackling the problem and have published a plan of action. This plan includes the renovation of hundreds of kilometres of quay walls. Given this enormous amount, it is necessary to prioritize certain quay walls over others based on the severity of their damage. Some quay walls have reached total collapse, of which the most recent case involves the "Grimburgwal" quay. The municipality has no accurate view of the current condition of quay walls in Amsterdam. On top of that, the vast majority of quay walls have not been assessed on their safety. It is known that the most vulnerable quay walls types consist of masonry walls, supported by wooden foundation structures. Given that the quay wall renovation project requires prioritisation, it is necessary to gain more information on how the most vulnerable walls are recognised. Preferably, a method should be developed in which only visual cues given by the masonry wall are required, as it is quick and relatively cheap. To gain information on what these visual cues might be, a three-dimensional finite element model is made to run simulations on possible behaviours of quay walls. In this thesis, it is attempted to model a quay wall as realistically as possible. Several different deterioration conditions will be applied to see how the masonry responds. The 3D model is built using a parametric model coded in Python. This code can be used to run simulations in the finite element software DIANA FEA. Many behavioural aspects have been incorporated into the model, with the purpose to make the model more realistic. The model consists of a masonry wall, planks on which the wall rests, and supporting piles. The behaviour of each component has been applied in the code and have been obtained through other literature and European norms. The model is loaded by simulating the weight of the soil and its effect on the quay wall structure. The masonry is simulated using a smeared cracking model (macro-model). Long-term deterioration of quay walls is simulated by changing the material properties of each respective component. This thesis focuses on three deterioration conditions: 1. Non-uniform pile degradation: application of broken piles, simulated by removal of those piles from the model. This is subdivided into two categories: removal of entire rows (a row consisting of a front, middle and end pile) and removal of front piles only. 2. Non-uniform soil removal: formation of soil pits at the foundation level, which result in decreased bedding around the foundation piles. 3. Uniform degradation: application of uniform deterioration along a stretch of quay walls. The simulations yield fairly consistent cracking patterns, in which the same crack fields appear in each simulation depending on the chosen case mentioned before. Displacement patterns are also documented and presented in all cases. The quay wall model is able to display in-plane and out-of-plane movement simultaneously. The effect of each parameter on the crack/displacement patterns are analysed as well. This includes masonry and wood quality. The results show that the largest in-plane settlements are reached by damaged piles, while the largest out-of-plane displacements are caused by a loss of soil bedding around the piles. The results can be used to provide better insight on how quay walls with poor quality present themselves in real life and what their cause might be. This research contributes to the possibility of improving recognition of quay walls which find themselves in critical condition, which can then be prioritized for renovations. For future research, it is recommended to see whether time-dependent simulations can be run, to see if it makes a difference in the outcome of displacement/cracking patterns. Another important recommendation is to look into deterioration rates of materials, which could be used as another indicator for critically damaged quay walls.

Geogrids are commonly used for reinforcement of soils in construction of railway and road embankments and bridge abutments. A relatively new application of geogrids is the anchorage of sheet pile walls, in which one or more layers of geogrid are attached to the sheet pile wall. This type of anchorage is particularly suitable for projects with sufficient space behind the sheet pile wall. This anchorage system has some mayor advantages in comparison to conventional sheet pile wall anchors as it is cost-effective and requires less steel. Moreover, prestressing is possible during construction and pile foundations can be installed through the geogrids. An analytical design calculation method for this type of anchorage is not yet available in the Dutch design guideline for the design of sheet pile walls (CUR166). The demand for short anchorage systems because of the commonly limited space behind sheet pile walls, shifts the focus of the design to the minimum required length of the geogrid-anchorage.
This report makes a first step into the formulation of a design-calculation for the mobilised anchor resistance as a function of the length of the geogrid(s) at ultimate limit state. By means of a 1g small-scale physical model and a 2D finite element model (PLAXIS) of the small-scale physical model, the global failure mechanism and soil-geogrid interaction have been analysed. In a series of these experiments, an 18 cm long geogrid anchor was connected to a 30 cm high sheet pile wall and installed in sand in a small transparent test box and loaded with a strip footing load. In addition, experiments were conducted while varying several features, among which the number and length of the geogrid anchors and the location of the slip footing load.

Amsterdam and many other cities consist of a network of old quay walls, which sometimes have been constructed over a century ago. A large uncertainty exists concerning the current safety of these quay walls and their remaining service lifetime. In the current framework for the assessment of old urban quay walls, the influence of timber creep in the structure is being omitted. It had been expected that a part of the excessive deformations occurred are part of this timber creep as opposed to progressive failure. Hence, this research studied the influence of wood creep on the structural behaviour of old urban quay walls, using a case study based on the Herengracht. For the modelling of the quay walls, use has been made of the Embedded Beam Row (EBR) elements in Plaxis 2D. As this element type has no material model which takes into account creep,
use has been made of pseudo-elasticity. The behaviour over time had been modelled by reducing the elastic stiffness of the EBR elements with increasing creep factors. To force Plaxis to perform calculations, this stiffness reduction has been introduced as a reduced strength in the form of a custom moment-curvature diagram. At the time of writing, the Embedded Beam Row had not yet been validated for cohesive soils. Hence, a verification has been executed of the EBR using a full-scale load test performed on a pile group in Salt Lake City. In
this case, a 3x5 pile group driven in multi-layered cohesive and non-cohesive soils had been laterally loaded. The results included deformations, total horizontal load and bending moment distributions over depth. It
has been found that the EBR provides reasonable results when modelling laterally loaded pile groups. The force-displacement curve from the field test was only slightly stiffer compared to those obtained using Plaxis 2D. Maximum bending moments obtained using the EBR had been found to be 20 to 30% compared to the experimental data. The group efficiency of the pile group was initially lower for small displacements, which was likely caused by the lack of installation effects of driven piles in the Plaxis model. It has been observed
that the Interface Stiffness Factors (ISF) that are used to calibrate the EBR behaviour have a limited range. Increasing the ISF values beyond a certain limit will no longer affect results, as the interface connecting the EBR to the soil will have become practically rigid at this point. Nevertheless, it has been concluded the EBR can be used in this case to model laterally loaded pile groups. The influence of the timber creep on the structural behaviour of quay walls has been studied using a model based on the Herengracht in Amsterdam. A maximum creep factor has been applied of Φ=1.6. Two methods have been used to apply the final creep factor. With the "Direct" method, the maximum creep factor was
applied in the same phase as the load. With the "Indirect" method, the creep factor has been applied incrementally in steps of 0.1. It has been observed that the results from these methods deviate significantly. With the Indirect method, larger creep displacements have been calculated, as well as lower maximum compressive stresses in the piles. The creep behaviour has been studied in more depth using the Indirect method. In this case study, creep displacements of 2.22 times the initial displacement have been calculated. When plotted against the increasing creep factors, it has been observed a power function could be fitted to the data. In addition, a stress reduction of 0.590 times the initial maximum compressive stress has been observed in the front two pile rows. This stress reduction was achieved at φ=0.4. In the most landinwards pile row, stresses
continued to decrease, with a reduced rate beyond φ=0.4. A sensitivity analysis has been performed to study which parameters have significant influence on the creep behaviour. Conclusions were drawn based on the relative change in horizontal displacement and maximum compressive stress in the front pile row. It has been concluded that the shear strength parameters of the top layer, the elastic modulus of the timber, surface load and the geometry have the largest influence on the creep behaviour. Furthermore, it has been discovered
that the size of the creep factor steps influences the final stress and displacement. With decreasing stepsize, convergence occurred in the results. From the results it has been concluded that the structural behaviour of
old urban quay walls is significantly influenced by timber creep. The inclusion of timber creep resulted in large displacement increases, but also in stress reduction. The results suggest that excessive deformations of quay walls does not mean that an ultimate limit state has been reached. It is recommended to include the timber creep in the modelling and assessment of existing quay walls.

Currently, the settlements of high-rise buildings are calculated based on two methods. The single pile settlements (s1), are generated due to mobilised shaft friction and pile tip resistance. These settlements are determined with analytical methods (i.e. NEN 9997-1, 2017). Settlements related to pile group behaviour in soil layers below pile tip level (s2) are calculated with the equivalent raft approach i.e. Tomlinson (1977). However, an essential aspect for differential settlement calculations is the redistribution of loads by soil-structure interaction mechanisms, which are not currently incorporated in the calculation approach. A missing factor for a soil-structure interaction calculation is the lack of soil- displacement installation effects in the numerical methods for single pile behaviour. Therefore, this research is focussed on the implementation of a soil displacement single pile behaviour in PLAXIS 3D and thereby towards integration of the structural and geotechnical design in one calculation method for appropriate soil subgrade reactions and load redistribution. In this research numerical methods are used in combination with the embedded beam approach applied in PLAXIS 3D. To approximate the NEN9997 load-displacement behaviour of soil displacement single piles, the behaviour of the embedded beam in combination with the multi-linear shaft friction is fitted in PLAXIS 3D. The fit is conducted by increasing the stiffness of a soil volume below pile tip level. Which does account for the residual stresses after pile installation. The solution of this fit consists of two parts: improvements on behalf of the new embedded beam formulation after Smulders (2018) and a soil stiffness fit below pile tip level. Regarding the new embedded beam formulation, improvements have been determined on mesh-dependency and a stiffer load-displacement response. The fit method performs well in combination with the embedded beams while approaching the load-displacement response of soil-displacement piles according to NEN9997. However, the ultimate bearing capacity of the embedded pile should still be calculated with D-Foundations (analytical method based on NEN9997). In the pile group calculation, the behaviour of single piles is extrapolated to all piles in the PLAXIS 3D model. A plate element is modelled on top of the pile heads to achieve a redistribution of loads due to the overlying superstructure. In this way, the single pile behaviour and bending stiffness of the superstructure is implemented in the PLAXIS 3D model, and the soil-structure interaction calculation is possible. However, group effects due to the soil displacement installation method are only partly covered in this approach. The reduction or increase in skin resistance in pile groups is not covered since, the predefined maximum skin friction capacity is manually inserted as an input parameter and it is not an outcome of the PLAXIS 3D calculation. Afterwards, the proposed framework is applied to a practical case study including measurement data of a high-rise project in Amsterdam. The proposed framework turned out to capture soil-structure interaction properly by taking into account a part of the superstructure bending stiffness and single pile behaviour. Compared to current calculation approaches, complex soil behaviour is captured in redistribution of the loads. However, the calculated settlements are still deviating from the measurement data. A probable explanation for the discrepancy is the shift in applied load over time in PLAXIS 3D relative to the real construction process. In conclusion, an improvement in terms of modelling soil-structure interaction has been achieved by incorporating single pile behaviour and superstructure bending stiffness in PLAXIS 3D. Therefore, the possibilities of linking the structural design to the geotechnical design in an early stage of the design process will be feasible. Combining the designs in an early stage, the structural dimensions of columns and beams are calculated with appropriate soil subgrade reactions and load redistributions by the soil. However, it is recommended to apply more investigation on the behaviour of soil- displacement pile (groups) in combination with embedded beams because, group effects are still not completely incorporated.

In the city of Amsterdam, many structures, such as houses,bridges and quay walls, are founded on wooden piles. In order to gain insightinto the safety of such structures, assessment of the foundations is required.As part of an experimental framework assessing the safety of bridges and quaywalls in the city of Amsterdam, a number of piles are instrumented with fiberoptic sensors and load tested in compression. These tests aim to providedetailed information on the behavior of timber piles subjected to loading. Thisinformation can be used to determine the geotechnical bearing capacity of suchpiles. An in-depth analysis is conducted on 8 timber piles tested within thisframework.  The conducted analysis has resulted in a variation ofoutcomes. Without including the effects of residual loads, an average baseresistance of 130 kN is observed. Upon inclusion of residual loads the averagetrue base resistance increases to a value of 188 kN. The average shaftcapacities in the bearing sand layer for scenarios excluding and includingresidual effects are 48 and 60 kN respectively.  The correlation factor α_p is derived usingthree cone resistance averaging techniques. The Koppejan method hasconsistently resulted in the highest derived α_p factors withvalues of 1.09 and 1.61 for scenarios excluding and including residual loadsrespectively.  The scenario excluding residual effects has resulted in anaverage α_sof 0.009 for the bearing sand layer. Upon inclusion of residual loads, thederived α_sfactor for the first sand layer amounts to 0.012. This increase in shear forcesis also observed in the Pleistocene peat layer. Therefore, residual loadsredistribute the capacity of the piles by increasing the shaft resistance inthe bearing sand and Pleistocene peat, while simultaneously decreasing theshear stresses in the Holocene layers above.  Conclusively, timber pile characteristics such as variationin geometry and mechanical properties have significant effects on the capacityof the piles. Additionally, these variations result in fluctuations in thecalculated load distribution along the pile. Local smoothing of thesefluctuations results in higher apparent loads, most specifically at the pilebase. Therefore, smoothing algorithms are not implemented in this analysis. Thevariation in diameter along the entire length of each pile directly affects theload distribution. Despite this influence, no trend is observed for thevariation of α_p factors with respect to pile tip diameter. Anapparent relationship between the tapering of the pile in the bearing sandlayer and the derived α_s factors suggests that tapering effectivelyincreases the shear forces along the shaft in that layer.  Furthermore, the usage of fiber optic sensors on woodenpiles has proven to be effective. The variation in local behavior of wood isclearly illustrated through the conducted analysis. As a consequence of thebiological nature of wood, the local behavior of wooden piles is best capturedby sensing technologies measuring strains at high spatial frequencies.  

Quay walls are often designed with Finite Element models (FE models) to take into account the complex soil-structure interaction and highly non-linear soil behaviour. These are complex models that rely on many input parameters that have uncertainties. Nowadays, new quay walls are often equipped with sensors that collect information about the behaviour of the quay wall. These quay walls are known as \textbf{smart} quay walls. The measurement data of smart quay walls could be used to validate FE models and reduce parameter uncertainties. This could lead to an optimisation of the functionality of the quay walls. By means of a case study this thesis determines if measurement data obtained during the construction process has the potential to optimise the functionality of smart quay walls. The case used is the HES Hartel Tank Terminal (HHTT-quay), which is a smart quay wall in the port of Rotterdam. The HHTT-quay consists of sections with and without a relieving platform, both are considered in this thesis. In this thesis the functionality of a quay wall refers to the retaining or bearing functionality. Therefore, an optimisation of the functionality could consist of an optimisation in the retaining height or the surface loads. The case study used in this thesis shows that measurement data obtained during the construction process already provides important information that can be used to optimise the functionality of the quay wall. This indicates that for smart quay walls the construction process can act as a load test and this could reduce the necessity to perform a load test during the service life.

First of all, an overview was created of different problems that can occur by the construction of cast-in-situ concrete piles, discussing the mechanisms that cause these problems. From the overview it was concluded that little information is present about the exact cause of excessive bleeding. Two possible causes were identified, excess pore water pressure in the surrounding soil caused by the pile installation and concrete stability, these are further researched. Comprehensive measurement data of the hydraulic head in an intermediate confined sand layer, during the installation of displacement piles, showed a consistent trend. During the descending phase a large increase in the hydraulic head was measured which can be described by volume displacement in the sand layer. In addition, a cumulative effect in the hydraulic head was found at the start of withdrawal of the temporary casing as the excess pore water pressure, resulting from the volume displacement, was not fully dissipated. During withdrawal, two additional pore water pressure increments can be distinguished. The direct increase starting from the onset of withdrawal has been interpreted as being caused by the reaction force of the machine on the ground resulting from the pull up force on the casing necessary to get the casing in motion.
Unfortunately, no conclusive cause was found for the second increase in hydraulic head regarding the processes that take place during withdrawal. This calls for further research as the hydraulic head after withdrawal will influence the interaction between the fresh concrete and the surrounding soil. Then a literature study on (excessive) bleeding in cement based materials was performed to assess how concrete stability influences the initiation of bleeding. The literature study showed that in order to capture the full bleeding phenomenon three processes can be distinguished. Sedimentation, Consolidation and Cement Hydration.