Gelatine adhesives, also known as animal glues, are collagen-based water-soluble biopolymers derived from vertebrate connective tissues. One of the various fields in which gelatine adhesives are widely used is the conservation of cultural heritage such as decorated furniture and panel paintings. It is observed that, with time, the failure in these objects often occurs along the adhesive bondlines. Given the moisture and temperature sensitivity of these adhesives, obtaining knowledge of their long-term behaviour, when exposed to climate variations, is pivotal. Here, the influence of hygrothermal ageing (exposure to a combination of elevated temperature and relative humidity (RH) cycling) on the microstructure and macroscopic properties of four different types of gelatine adhesives is investigated. These adhesives were selected from different animal origins namely bovine, rabbit, and fish with different Bloom strengths. It was observed that ageing cycles interfere with the most critical structural feature of protein chains namely triple helices. A clear decay in triple helix content at the micro-scale, determined by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) techniques, was observed which had implications on the macroscopic properties of these adhesives such as reduction of strain to failure and toughness (strain energy density to failure). The rate of decay in properties was revealed to be the highest in the adhesives with the lowest triple helix content. This study provides a scientific view of microstructure-property relationships in gelatinous adhesives as a function of environmental ageing, and stipulates the underlying mechanism of the degradation of mechanical properties as the loss of structural triple helices, regardless of the animal origin.@en

The majority of the bridges in the historic city centre of Amsterdam are supported by wooden foundation piles. Most of these were constructed 100–300 years ago, currently raising concerns about potential safety issues. The wooden piles under the bridges remain entirely under the water table, potentially subjected to bacterial decay in anaerobic conditions. Bacterial degradation proceeds at a slow rate, allowing the piles to perform their function for many years, although causing a reduction of their load-carrying capacity over time. To this end, a large experimental campaign was conducted to characterize the material and mechanical properties in relation to biological decay of 60 spruce and fir piles, dated back to 1727, 1886 and 1922, retrieved from two bridges in Amsterdam. Large-scale compression tests were carried out on 201 pile-segments extracted from head, middle-part and tip of the piles to determine their remaining short-term compressive strength. Micro-drilling measurements were conducted on each pile and analysed with a TU-Delft-developed algorithm, aimed at determining the soft shell – the width of the decayed outer layer of the piles’ cross section. Micro-drilling allowed to accurately assess the remaining sound cross section of the pile, which resulted to be well correlated to its mechanical properties. The extent of decay throughout the cross-section of the piles was assessed within sapwood and heartwood through experimental models from literature and validated with Computed Tomography (CT) scanning. This allowed to identify that bacterial decay was only present in the non-durable sapwood, even in very degraded piles. Moreover, the soft shell resulted to be rather uniform along the piles’ length. The analysis of decay, supported by micro-drilling and CT scans, allowed to develop experimental equations to predict the remaining short-term compressive strength along the pile length. The micro-drilling technique is now used on a large scale in Amsterdam, supporting the assessment of the remaining load carrying-capacity of wooden foundation piles in the city, aiding in the planning of conservation, maintenance and preservation strategies.@en

Similar to wood, adhesives may exhibit duration of load effects. When loaded for longer periods of time, damage processes in the material may develop, eventually leading to failure. From wood research it is known that load level, temperature and relative humidity have an important influence on this behaviour. In general, higher stress levels, temperatures, and moisture content will lead to shorter times to failure and these effects may be more pronounced in loading directions such as shear or tension perpendicular to the grain. It is shown that the reaction kinetics based approach for damage accumulation effects in polyurethane based adhesives can be described using the same non-linear damage accumulation expression as used for wood. The relationship between the time to failure and load-level as influenced by for instance temperature is determined for lap joints, immersed in hot water with temperature of 60oC and 90oC, and at load levels varying between 30 and 90% of the mean short term shear strength.

It is shown that a non-linear damage accumulation expression as used for wood, can also be used for damage accumulation effects in melamine-urea-formaldehyde adhesives. The relationship between the time to failure and load-level as influenced by temperature is determined for beech lap joints loaded in tensile shear. The specimens have been immersed in hot water with temperatures of 60oC and 90oC respectively, and at load levels varying between 30 and 90% of the mean short term shear strength. @en

Wooden pile foundations are present in many historic towns in Europe and beyond. The technology of making such foundations was developed primarily in southern Europe, but rapidly spread to other countries. The foundations themselves are made with wooden piles of up to 15m, on top of which horizontal wood members are placed acting as interface between structure and piles. Assessment of the state of wood and its mechanical properties is fundamental for a thorough structural analysis, whether for an existing structure or for re-use. In both cases, the type and amount of degradation needs to be addressed. For wooden structural elements, a fundamental analysis is required regarding the mechanical degradation because of long term loading (duration of load effect), in combination with an assessment of the size and severity of biological or physical decay. These effects are responsible for the remaining load carrying capacity and consequently, also for the decision-making process whether the foundation can be re-used. The assessment of this remaining load carrying capacity is done using an integral damage accumulation model, taking into account the severity and type of degradation, combined with the mechanical load components causing the duration of load effect in wood. As such, the structural analysis approach is different from current design standards for new timber structures, and in-line with the principles laid out in ISO standard 13822 for the assessment of existing structures.@en

In the historic city centre of Amsterdam (NL), the predominant foundation system is comprised of wooden piles. Due to their placement below the water table, these foundations are susceptible to bacterial decay. This study aims to investigate and compare various methods for characterizing decay patterns within the cross sections of piles retrieved from two bridges in Amsterdam. The examined piles span different construction years: three originate from 1727, four from 1886, and two from 1922. Following extraction, the piles were transported to TU Delft Stevin II Laboratory, where they underwent further subdivision into three segments, each representing the head, middle, and tip, resulting in a total of 27 segments. The effects of bacterial decay were characterised by performing micro-drilling measurements, small-scale material and compressive tests on prismatic samples extracted from the segments' cross sections, computed tomography scans, and light microscopy observations. Microscopic examination revealed severe degradation in all segments dating back to 1727, extending 20–50 mm from their surface. This outcome was also confirmed by the other adopted methods: the corresponding prisms had large moisture contents and poor mechanical properties, while low basic densities and drilling amplitudes were obtained from CT scans and micro-drilling measurements, respectively. On the contrary, the internal sections of the 1727 segments exhibited no evidence of decay and demonstrated properties consistent with those observed in sound segments from 1886 and 1922. Finally, the observed gradients of density, strength, and stiffness were well correlated with micro-drilling measurements, which can therefore be reliably used as on-site assessment method to reconstruct the properties of the piles.

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The majority of bridges and quay walls in the centre of Amsterdam are supported by 100–300 years-old wooden foundation piles subjected to bacterial decay. Bacterial degradation proceeds at a slow rate, allowing the piles to perform their function for many years, although causing a reduction of their load-carrying capacity over time. In this study, micro-drilling measurements were employed to capture the amount of decay and remaining short-term compressive strength of the historic wooden piles. The applicability of micro-drilling was studied on 60 wooden piles with various decay levels, retrieved after 100–295 years of service life. An algorithm was developed for analysing the micro-drilling signals, aimed at determining the decayed outer layer of the piles’ cross section, and validated with the results of mechanical testing on the piles. The micro-drilling technique is now used on a large scale in Amsterdam, supporting the assessment of the wooden foundation piles in the city.

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The majority of bridges and quay walls in the inner city of Amsterdam rely on wooden foundation piles. Most of these were constructed 100–300 years ago, implying several challenges for the assessment of the current residual load-carrying capacity and their reliability. In Amsterdam, the wooden piles supporting bridges and quay walls remain entirely under the water table, which means that only bacterial decay can occur. Bacterial degradation proceeds at a slow rate, allowing the piles to perform their function for many years, although causing a reduction of the load-carrying capacity over time. To this end, the municipality of Amsterdam started a large project where non-destructive micro-drilling measurements were employed, with the goal of capturing the in-situ level of decay and the remaining strength of wooden foundation piles. The applicability of micro-drilling was studied on 60 wooden piles with various decay levels, driven between 1727 and 1922, and retrieved from two bridges in Amsterdam. An algorithm was developed for analysing the micro-drilling signals, aimed at determining the decayed outer layer of the pile (soft shell). The micro-drilling approach was validated with the results of mechanical testing on the piles. This study contributes to reliably assessing the decay and remaining load carrying-capacity of wooden foundation piles utilizing in-situ micro-drilling measurements.@en

The paper deals with the specific approach to teach the subject of assessment and retrofitting of historical timber structures to students of various colleges in an integrated and multidisciplinary course. Timber structures belong to the oldest structures in the world and because of their specific susceptibility to ageing, often require a profound analysis with respect to their current state and functionality. Especially in Europe, city centres are full of historical buildings that present an important cultural heritage, and as a consequence have a protected status. This status entails that these structures need to be assessed, maintained and monitored carefully, to keep the state of these structures at a level that they can perform. These tasks are often complicated and require interdisciplinary work. In education, this interdisciplinarity is often difficult to incorporate in the curriculum, as various expertises needed for cultural heritage assessment are separately and often fragmentary present at various colleges or faculties of universities, if present at all. Also, different teaching approaches may hinder course development. This paper deals with educational activities that have been developed and experienced at TU Munich and TU Delft, along with the cooperation with the University of Zagreb, dealing with the most important aspects of the assessment and analysis of historical timber structures.

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Timber pile foundations are widespread in many areas around Europe and North-America. Especially in areas with weak soils, timber pile foundations have been a very good and economic solution. That foundations can be up to 500 years in service in cities like Venice, Amsterdam, Boston and many others. Degradation of the piles may occur over time which may influence considerably the residual service life. Residual service life is depending both on the time-to-failure behavior of wood, as well as the dead and live loads on the piles below buildings, quay walls and bridges. A good assessment method is required, as closing down infrastructure (bridges, quays) or buildings because of failing foundations causes considerable economical damage. In recent years in the cities of Rotterdam and Amsterdam failures occurs on such foundations. A comprehensive research program has been set up, that includes the development of underwater microdrilling equipment, so that an indication of the wood quality can be done in situ, without the need of bringing samples to the laboratory. The development of this microdrilling has been paired with a large scale campaign to determine the strength of new and recovered piles. In a next step, by applying a non-linear damage accumulation model, the remaining service life is estimated as a function of the decay level and decay rate, as well as the expected mechanical loads.

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Gelatine adhesives aka ‘animal glues’ are water-soluble biopolymers used in historic objects such as wooden cabinets and panel paintings since ancient times. This paper investigates the correlations between microstructural features, namely triple helices, and macroscopic properties of four different types of gelatine adhesives, prevalently used in conservation practices, irrespective of the animal origin. These adhesives include bovine bone, bovine skin, rabbit skin, and fish glues. Thin adhesive films were produced via solution casting methods in controlled climate conditions and their thermal and mechanical properties, and moisture sensitivity were investigated. XRD as a non-destructive characterisation method demonstrated good agreement with DSC in the quantification of gelatine adhesive (animal glue) triple helix content irrespective of the animal origin. Linear correlations between triple helices and gel (Bloom) strength and tensile strain energy to failure (toughness) were found for all adhesive types. Dynamic vapour sorption experiments demonstrated that lower triple helix content is correlated with higher moisture sensitivity of the adhesives. Moreover, the effect of environmental RH on the thermal behaviour of adhesives was investigated by DSC. The results demonstrated that the increase in environmental RH causes a reduction in the adhesives' glass transition and denaturation temperatures whilst triple helix content did not alter. Bovine bone glue with the lowest triple helix content showed the least toughness and highest moisture sensitivity, whilst fish glue with the highest triple helix content was identified as the most flexible glue.

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In the historic city centre of Amsterdam (NL), the most widespread foundation system consists of wooden piles. With the aim of modelling and predicting remaining service life of these foundations and the piles in particular, one of the possible methods for collecting data and monitoring their condition consists of micro-drilling (MD) measurements. This work evaluates the reliability of MD measurements in identifying decayed portions and specific features of wooden foundation piles, considering different moisture content (MC) values. To this end, 24 segments were selected, sawn from wooden piles extracted from site, and having time in service (TS) of 2 to 294 years (with reference to 2021, the year of extraction). 240 MD measurements were conducted at varying MC values of 7% to 212%. The obtained MD profiles showed for all TS a slight decrease in drilling resistance when increasing MC. However, from the MD signals it is possible to reliably detect the areas affected by biodegradation phenomena (e.g. bacterial decay) along the drilling depth, regardless the MC of the segment or its gradient along the drilling depth. The present study contributes to research aiming at utilizing (in-situ) MD techniques for reliably assessing and quantifying decay and to be used in remaining service life planning of wooden foundation piles.

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Collagen-based bioadhesives, also known as animal glues, are derived from animal parts (e.g. skin, bone, and cartilage). They have been widely used in the production of decorative wood working, paintings, bookbinding, and other historical objects for centuries as well as for their restoration and preservation [1]. Collagen, in which the term (kólla) is derived from the Greek word for glue, is a fibrous structural protein with a hierarchical microstructure at different length scales. Collagen is water insoluble and can be turned into water-soluble gelatine through the denaturation process. Upon denaturation, the triple helix structure in collagen unwinds and turns into random coils giving gelatinous animal glue. Gelatinous animal glue can be dissolved in water and during gelling and subsequent drying, the random protein coils undergo partial renaturation back into triple helices. These triple helices in the adhesive act as physical cross-links leading to a continuous three-dimensional network structure [2]. These microstructural features affect the physical and mechanical performance of the glue at micro and macro scales. In this study four different adhesives from different animal species both mammalian and fish are investigated. These adhesives are bovine bone, bovine skin, rabbit skin, and fish. For this study, thin films of these adhesives were manufactured using the solution casting method. Physical and mechanical behaviour of the adhesives were characterized using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Bloom strength evaluation, and uniaxial tensile tests. @en

Lignin, one of the most abundant natural polymers, has been extensively studied as liquid or solid additive in bituminous binders. Despite the fact the organosolv lignin in bitumen improves the overall resistance against oxidative aging, lignin could lead to binders of high thermal cracking sensitivity. In this study, a bio-based oil is implemented in a lignin modified bitumen to ameliorate characteristics, such as fatigue and thermal cracking resistance. Pressure aging vessel conditioning was applied to new binders formulated by different proportions of bio-oil to simulate the long-term aging. A series of rheological tests were performed. Based on the linear amplitude sweep test results, fatigue damage of lignin-bitumen could be reduced by increasing the oil content. According to relaxation test results, the addition of oil significantly decreased the ratio of residual stress and relaxation time. This study has shown preliminary conclusions on the use of bio-oil to improve the low-intermediate temperature performance of lignin-bitumen binders.

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Timber pile foundations are widespread in many areas around Europe and North-America. Especially in areas with weak soils, timber pile foundations have been a very good and economic solution. However, aging of the foundations can become a problem, as physical, biological and/or chemical degradation may occur over time. Now, that foundations can be up to 500 years in cities like Venice, Amsterdam, Hamburg, Boston and many others, questions arise about the reliability and which assessment methods can be used in order to estimate the current load carrying capacity and their residual service life. Residual service life is depending both on the time-to-failure behaviour of wood, as well as, the dead and live loads on the piles below buildings, quay walls and bridges. The approach taken integrates degradation models with a reaction kinetics based damage model. For wood that remains consistently below the waterline, the combination of bacterial degradation and long term loading is considered the most important, but degradation by fungi also may occur depending on soil and groundwater conditions. The integral assessment model will function as a tool for repair and maintenance strategies for asset managers and structural engineers.

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Tropical hardwood or treated wooden sheet piles have been used historically to protect stream banks in countries like the Netherlands. However, there is an imminent need for alternative as exploitable tropical hardwood forests available in the country is limited. Locally available softwoods are less resistant to decay and in extreme conditions like in a stream bank with high moisture content, softwoods show minimal durability. The section of the sheet pile at air-water-soil interface is the most prone to decay. Hence twin-wood sheet piles have been developed in industrial scale, which is a combination of hardwood and softwood. Hardwoods which have high resistance to decay is used above the water table while softwood is used in the section which is always below water. An alternative stream bank protection system using vegetation and softwood sheet pile was proposed recently. In such a system the effect of vegetation can be included as an increase in cohesion of the soil or an increase in internal friction angle. In this article two different approaches (System approach (SA) and Discrete approach (DA)) for the design of wooden sheet pile-vegetation system are examined. The SA shows that the presence of vegetation increased the time for complete damage of the wooden sheet pile-vegetation system to occur. In DA approach a change in slope of the face of the stream bank is required if the effect of vegetation is considered as an increase in friction angle of the soil.@en

Churches are part of heritage structures that take an important role in Europe ́s cultural identity. As such, these structures must be protected to prevent catastrophic collapse and any damage must be reported timely to establish planning to maintenance and restoration. This can be achievable when the churches are monitored periodically with regular intervals. However, this monitoring strategy has not been available in most of the Europe’s churches for a number of reasons, complexity of the structures and limited budget are just two of them. Laser scanning has been widely used in capturing rich three-dimensional (3D) topographic data of visible surfaces of a structure with high accuracy. This paper presents a methodology to determine the shape and possible deviation from verticality of the church’s tower for monitoring deformation using a terrestrial laser scanner. The 500-year old wooden tower of St. Bavo Church in Haarlem, Netherlands is selected as a case study. First, point clouds of the tower captured from different views are registered into the same coordinate system. Second, a RANSAC method is employed to extract point clouds of a whole façades of the tower. Next, a point and surface-based method is proposed to compute the deformation of the surface from its data points. The results indicate that there is slightly different deformation between the tower facades in the same story and in neighbour stories. Moreover, the maximum total relative deformation at Story 7 of the tower by 0.63m.@en

The main parameter that influences the bending strength of timber from tropical hardwood is the slope of grain. Although, in the grading rules, a specific threshold value is given, in these hardwoods, the global slope of grain is very difficult to quantify by visual assessment. The slope of grain measured after testing gives a better indication, but still it can only poorly describe the Hankinson relations. By rewriting the Hankinson relations, the slope of grain can be determined from the bending strength test values and from the MOE test value, both in combination with the density values and constants derived by non-linear regression analysis. These two values correlate very well, and the average value is designated as the theoretical slope of grain. With the theoretical slope of grain, five test samples of the tropical wood species okan were evaluated, and slope of grain values of 0.3 were observed, where 0.1 is the limit value. Because all pieces passed the visual grading method as applied in practice, slope of grain values should be incorporated in the strength class assignment test program, when these qualities cannot be ruled out for coming on the market. The (dynamic) modulus of elasticity can be used to evaluate the occurrence of the desired range of slope of grain values in the test samples.

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Timber sheet pile walls are widely used for the protection of stream banks in different parts of the world. However, there is a tendency to create more sustainable types of stream banks not only because exploitable wood is more difficult to obtain, but also because of disturbance to the natural habitat of plants and animals due to hard embankments. In the Netherlands alone, about 2500 km of engineered timber sheet pile wall embankments exist, primarily made with tropical hardwood, besides an even much larger amount of ‘non-engineered’ small-size timber-based embankments. As an alternative, the authors propose to use a mixed timber sheet pile-vegetation system, where locally available timber can be applied in combination with natural vegetation. Unlike the usual bioengineering scheme, vegetation is not seen as an element, which could replace the timber sheet piles. Instead, a new perspective is tested, where the vegetation is included as a ‘structural’ element which can even counteract the consequences of time-dependent biological degradation of the timber sheet pile. By doing so, both long-term durability as well as reliability of the stream bank is improved. A comprehensive design strategy was developed based on well-established sub-models from the literature on plant growth, root reinforcement as well as timber damage accumulation. The timber sheet pile wall-vegetation system is illustrated in an example case study. Preliminary analysis including only the mechanical reinforcement of vegetation shows that there is a decrease in moment and shear acting on the timber sheet pile with growth of the vegetation. Consequently, the damage accumulation due to load duration effects on the timber decreases and the service life of the system increases. Thus, using vegetation in combination with highly degradable timber could possibly negate the need for using hardwood timber, or more generally, save resources that are currently used for these structures.

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The integration of buildings into vegetation has become a necessity in many metropolitan areas of the world today. It expands the potential of vertical and horizontal, exterior and interior, exposed and enclosed spaces in a building that can be used to accommodate plants. Green infrastructures have benefits both on urban and building scales. They can be categorized into green roofs and vertical greenery systems that can be divided further into green façade, green wall, green terraces, elevated forest and vertical forest. There are many design and planting considerations for architects, structural engineers and botanists when using living architectures to mimic natural systems, such as plant characteristics and environmental conditions. Plants used for vertical greenery are more likely to be hardwood species to adjust solar radiation during cooling and heating periods, as well as for aesthetic pleasure. Take Bosco Verticale, which is located in Milan, as an example to look into engineering methods when trees grow on balconies of high-rise buildings. It can be concluded that planting restraint safety systems and regular maintenance are necessary for the tree growth in the sky. However, the change in growing conditions causes various problems such as stability and irregular growth of trees. Instead of using steel cables and cages to prevent trees from falling off in the sky, the concept of self-growing connections is proposed to act as natural bracings and provide the stability for vertical forests. This paper is meant to generate awareness of the possibilities of the vertical integration of trees into buildings, show application considerations, and inspire future developments.

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Samples of European beech (Fagus sylvatica) were used for this study. Logs of these samples covered a scatter of mild-to-strong curvatures and the boards of these samples covered strong fiber deviations. This study consists of two separate parts: (1) log reconstruction and optimization of the cutting pattern, and (2) board reconstruction and strength prediction. Information about the internal quality of the logs is missing in this study, as laser scanning has been used for surface reconstruction of logs. Therefore, two separate steps were implemented here. (1) Influence of cutting pattern and board-dimensions on yield were analyzed. For this step, 50 logs were checked. (2) A more advanced numerical method based on the finite element (FE) analysis was developed to improve the accuracy of tensile strength predictions. This step was performed, because visual grading parameters were relatively weak predictors for tensile strength of these samples. In total, 200 beech boards were analyzed in this step. However, due to the geometrical configuration of some knots, the reconstruction and numerical strength prediction of 194 boards out of 200 boards were possible. By performing tensile tests numerically, stress concentration factors (SCFs) were derived, considering the average and maximum stresses around the imperfections. SCFs in combination with the longitudinal stress wave velocity were the numerical identifying parameters (IPs), used in the nonlinear regression model for tensile strength prediction. The influence of the combination of different numerical parameters in the developed non-linear model on improving the quality of the strength prediction was analyzed. For this reason, improvement of coefficient of determination (R²) after adding each parameter to the multiple regression analysis was checked. Performance of the developed numerical method was compared to the typical grading approaches [using knottiness and the dynamic MoE (MoE_dyn)], and it was shown that the coefficient of determination is higher, when using the virtual methods for tensile strength predictions.

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