The investigation of neural activity in the murine brain through electrophysiological recordings stands as a fun-damental pursuit within the domain of neuroscience. A specific area of keen interest within this field pertains to the scrutiny of Purkinje cells, nestled within the cerebellum, in order to gain insights into the mechanisms underlying brain injuries and the impairment of motor functions. Notably, Purkinje cells manifest two distinct types of spikes - complex and simple - a pivotal aspect for subsequent classification purposes. However, a critical challenge has persisted in the experimental paradigm: the prevailing setups necessitate the use of wired connections linking the mouse's head stage to data acquisition systems. This constraint substantially curtails the mouse's natural behavior during the course of experimentation, limiting the ability to study essential neural processes and motor function aspects over extended periods. In this paper, we propose a new architectural framework for the detection and classification of neuronal spikes originating from Purkinje cells. This system is engineered to exploit the distinct attributes of these neural entities, effectively winnowing out extraneous data while retaining the pertinent information. The resultant output is a refined dataset, amenable to convenient storage within the mouse's head stage, obviating the need for unwieldy wiring configurations. Our proposed implementation attains a classification accuracy of up to 98% on an in-vivo dataset. Furthermore, its compact form factor en-sures unhindered mobility for the experimental mouse, fostering naturalistic behaviors during the course of scientific inquiry.

Current Artificial Intelligence (AI) computation systems face challenges, primarily from the memory-wall issue, limiting overall system-level performance, especially for Edge devices with constrained battery budgets, such as smartphones, wearables, and Internet-of-Things sensor systems. In this paper, we propose a new SRAM-based Compute-In-Memory (CIM) accelerator optimized for Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs) Inference. Our proposed architecture employs a multiport SRAM design with multiple decoupled Read ports to enhance the throughput and Transposable Read-Write ports to facilitate online learning. Furthermore, we develop an Arbiter circuit for efficient data-processing and port allocations during the computation. Results for a 128×128 array in 3nm FinFET technology demonstrate a 3.1× improvement in speed and a 2.2× enhancement in energy efficiency with our proposed multiport SRAM design compared to the traditional single-port design. At system-level, a throughput of 44 MInf/s at 607 pJ/Inf and 29mW is achieved.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a leading cause of permanent vision loss worldwide. It refers to irreversible retinal damage caused due to elevated glucose levels and blood pressure. Regular screening for DR can facilitate its early detection and timely treatment. Neural network-based DR classifiers can be leveraged to achieve such screening in a convenient and automated manner. However, these classifiers suffer from reliability issue where they exhibit strong performance during development but degraded performance after deployment. Moreover, they do not provide supplementary information about the prediction outcome, which severely limits their widespread adoption. Furthermore, energy-efficient deployment of these classifiers on edge devices remains unaddressed, which is crucial to enhance their global accessibility. In this paper, we present a reliable and energy-efficient hardware for DR detection, suitable for deployment on edge devices. We first develop a DR classification model using custom training data that incorporates diverse image quality and image sources along with improved class balance. This enables our model to effectively handle both on-field variations in retinal images and minority DR classes, enhancing its post-deployment reliability. We then propose a pseudo-binary classification scheme to further improve the model performance and provide supplementary information about the model prediction. Additionally, we present an energy-efficient hardware design for our model using memristor-based computation-in-memory, to facilitate its deployment on edge devices. Our proposed approach achieves reliable DR classification with three orders of magnitude reduction in energy consumption over state-of-the-art hardware platforms.

Computation-in-memory (CIM) paradigm leverages emerging memory technologies such as resistive random access memories (RRAMs) to process the data within the memory itself. This alleviates the memory-processor bottleneck resulting in much higher hardware efficiency compared to von-Neumann architecture-based conventional hardware. Hence, CIM becomes an attractive alternative for applications like neural networks which require a huge number of data transfer operations in conventional hardware. CIM-based neural networks typically employ bit-slicing scheme which represents a single neural weight using multiple RRAM devices (called slices) to meet the high bit-precision demand. However, such neural networks suffer from significant accuracy degradation due to non-zero Gmin error where a zero weight in the neural network is represented by an RRAM device with a non-zero conductance. This paper proposes an unbalanced bit-slicing scheme to mitigate the impact of non-zero Gmin error. It achieves this by allocating appropriate sensing margins for different slices based on their binary positions. It also tunes the sensing margins to meet the demands of either high accuracy or energy-efficiency. The sensing margin allocation is supported by 2's complement arithmetic which further reduces the influence of non-zero Gmin error. Simulation results show that our proposed scheme achieves up to 7.3× accuracy and up to 7.8× correct operations per unit energy consumption compared to state-of-the-art.

Memristor-based computation-in-memory (CIM) can achieve high energy efficiency by processing the data within the memory, which makes it well-suited for applications like neural networks. However, memristors suffer from conductance variation problem where their programmed conductance values deviate from the desired values. Such variations lead to computational errors that result in degraded inference accuracy in CIM-based neural networks. In this paper, we present a mapping-aware biased training methodology to mitigate the impact of conductance variation on CIM-based neural networks. We first determine which conductance states of the memristor are inherently more immune to variation. The neural network is then trained under the constraint that important weights can only take numeric values which directly get mapped to such favorable states. Simulation results show that our proposed mapping-aware biased training achieves up to 2.4× hardware accuracy compared to the conventional training.

Timely detection of cardiac arrhythmia characterized by abnormal heartbeats can help in the early diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Wearable healthcare devices typically use neural networks to provide the most convenient way of continuously monitoring heart activity for arrhythmia detection. However, it is challenging to achieve high accuracy and energy efficiency in these smart wearable healthcare devices. In this work, we provide architecture-level solutions to deploy neural networks for cardiac arrhythmia classification. We have created a hierarchical structure after analyzing various neural network topologies where only required network components are activated to improve energy efficiency while maintaining high accuracy. In our proposed architecture, we introduce a severity-based classification approach to directly help the users of the wearable healthcare device as well as the medical professionals. Additionally, we have employed computation-in-memory based hardware to improve energy efficiency and area consumption by leveraging in-situ data processing and scalability of emerging memory technologies such as resistive random access memory (RRAM). Simulation experiments conducted using the MIT-BIH arrhythmia dataset show that the proposed architecture provides high accuracy while consuming average energy of 0.11 $\mu$J per heartbeat classification and 0.11 mm2 area, thereby achieving 25× improvement in average energy consumption and 12× improvement in area compared to the state-of-the-art.

Smart computing on edge-devices has demonstrated huge potential for various application sectors such as personalized healthcare and smart robotics. These devices aim at bringing smart computing close to the source where the data is generated or stored, while coping with the stringent resource budget of the edge platforms. The conventional Von-Neumann architecture fails to meet these requirements due to various limitations e.g., the memory-processor data transfer bottleneck. Memristor-based Computation-In-Memory (CIM) has the potential to realize such smart edge computing for data-dominated Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications by exploiting both the inherent properties of the architecture and the physical characteristics of the memristors. This paper discusses different aspects of CIM, including classification, working principle, CIM potentials and CIM design-flow. The design-flow is illustrated through two case studies to demonstrate the huge potential of CIM in realizing orders of magnitude improvement in energy-efficiency as compared to the conventional architectures. Finally future challenges and research directions of CIM are covered.

Deep Learning (DL) has recently led to remark-able advancements, however, it faces severe computation related challenges. Existing Von-Neumann-based solutions are dealing with issues such as memory bandwidth limitations and energy inefficiency. Computation-In-Memory (CIM) has the potential to address this problem by integrating processing elements directly into the memory architecture, reducing data movement and enhancing the overall efficiency of the system. In this work, we propose CIM architecture using three distinct emerging technologies. Firstly, a CIM architecture utilizing Ferroelectric Field-Effect Transistors (FeFET) is shown and the resulting errors from the analog compute scheme are injected into the emerging algorithm of Hyperdimensional Computing. Subsequently, we explore Vertical Nanowire Field-Effect Transistors (VNWFETs) based CIM within a 3D computing architecture, demonstrating improved energy efficiency and reconfigurability for CIM. Additionally, we improve the accuracy of the Resistive Random Access Memories (RRAM) based CIM architecture using two mapping-based solutions. These three technologies exhibit non-volatile characteristics, and when integrated into the CIM architecture, they yield significant advantages, including enhanced energy efficiency, reliability, and accuracy in computing processes.

Analog computation-in-memory (CIM) architecture alleviates massive data movement between the memory and the processor, thus promising great prospects to accelerate certain computational tasks in an energy-efficient manner. However, data converters involved in these architectures typically achieve the required computing accuracy at the expense of high area and energy footprint which can potentially determine CIM candidacy for low-power and compact edge-AI devices. In this work, we present a memory-periphery co-design to perform accurate A/D conversions of analog matrix-vector-multiplication (MVM) outputs. Here, we introduce a scheme where select-lines and bit-lines in the memory are virtually fixed to improve conversion accuracy and aid a ring-oscillator-based A/D conversion, equipped with component sharing and inter-matching of the reference blocks. In addition, we deploy a self-timed technique to further ensure high robustness addressing global design and cycle-to-cycle variations. Based on measurement results of a 4Kb CIM chip prototype equipped with TSMC 40nm, a relative accuracy of up to 99.71% is achieved with an energy efficiency of 115.1 TOPS/W and computational density of 12.1 TOPS/mm2 for the MNIST dataset. Thus, an improvement of up to 11.3X and 7.5X compared to the state-of-the-art, respectively.

Resistive RAM (RRAM) is a promising technology to replace traditional technologies such as Flash, because of its low energy consumption, CMOS compatibility, and high density. Many companies are prototyping this technology to validate its potential. Bringing this technology to the market requires high-quality tests to ensure customer satisfaction. Hence, it is of great importance to deeply understand manufacturing defects and accurately model them to develop optimal tests. This paper presents a holistic framework for defect and fault modeling that enables the development of optimal tests for RRAMs. An overview and classification of RRAM manufacturing defects are provided. Defects in contacts and interconnects are modeled as resistors. Unique RRAM defects, e.g., forming defects, require Device-Aware defect modeling which incorporates the defect's impact on the device's electric properties by adjusting the affected technology and electrical parameters. Additionally, a systematic approach to define the fault space is presented, followed by a methodology to validate this space. With this methodology, accurate fault modeling for contact, interconnect, and forming defects is performed and tests are developed. The tests are able to detect all faults in a time-efficient manner, thereby proving the effectiveness of the framework. Finally, an outlook on future RRAM testing is presented.

Resistive random access memory (RRAM) based computation-in-memory (CIM) architectures are attracting a lot of attention due to their potential in performing fast and energy-efficient computing. However, the RRAM variability and non-idealities limit the computing accuracy of such architectures, especially for multi-operand logic operations. This paper pro-poses a voltage-based differential referencing-in-array scheme that enables accurate two and multi-operand logic operations for RRAM-based CIM architecture. The scheme makes use of a 2T2R cell configuration to create a complementary bitcell structure that inherently acts also as a reference during the operation execution; this results in a high sensing margin. More-over, the variation-sensitive multi-operand (N)AND operation is implemented using complementary-input (N)OR operation to further improve its accuracy. Simulation results for a post-layout extracted 512x512 (256Kb) RRAM-based CIM array show that up to 56 operand (N)OR/(N)AND operation can be accurately and reliably performed as opposed to a maximum of 4 operands supported by state-of-the-art solutions, while offering up to 11.4X better energy-efficiency.

Spin-transfer torque magnetic random access memory (STT-MRAM) based computation-in-memory (CIM) architectures have shown great prospects for an energy-efficient computing. However, device variations and non-idealities narrow down the sensing margin that severely impacts the computing accuracy. In this work, we propose an adaptive referencing mechanism to improve the sensing margin of a CIM architecture for boolean binary logic (BBL) operations. We generate reference signals using multiple STT-MRAM devices and place them strategically into the array such that these signals can address the variations and trace the wire parasitics effectively. We have demonstrated this behavior using an STT-MRAM model, which is calibrated using 1Mbit characterized array. Results show that our proposed architecture for binary neural networks (BNN) achieves up to 17.8 TOPS/W on the MNIST dataset and 130× performance improvement for the text encryption compared to the software implementation on Intel Haswell processor.

Computation-in-memory using memristive devices is a promising approach to overcome the performance limitations of conventional computing architectures introduced by the von Neumann bottleneck which are also known as memory wall and power wall. It has been shown that accelerators based on memristive devices can deliver higher energy efficiencies and data throughputs when compared with conventional architectures. In the vast multitude of memristive devices, bipolar resistive switches based on the valence change mechanism (VCM) are particularly interesting due to their low power operation, non-volatility, high integration density and their CMOS compatibility. While a wide range of possible applications is considered, many of them such as artificial neural networks heavily rely on vector-matrix-multiplications (VMMs) as a mathematical operation. These VMMs are made up of large numbers of multiplication and accumulation (MAC) operations. The MAC operation can be realised using memristive devices in an analog fashion using Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s law. However, VCM devices exhibit a range of non-idealities, affecting the VMM performance, which in turn impacts the overall accuracy of the application. Those non-idealities can be classified into time-independent (programming variability) and time-dependent (read disturb and read noise). Additionally, peripheral circuits such as analog to digital converters can introduce errors during the digitalization. In this work, we experimentally and theoretically investigate the impact of device- and circuit-level effects on the VMM in a VCM crossbars. Our analysis shows that the variability of the low resistive state plays a key role and that reading in the RESET direction should be favored to reading in the SET direction.