The Dutch energy transition is alive and kicking, however problems arise because of this same transition. Transmission grid congestion is one of them, whereby the grid cannot handle all the extra electricity from wind and solar power, combined with the extra demand due to electrification. Furthermore, business parks have a large potential for emission reduction of the Netherlands, but this potential is not harvested yet. Sustainable energy measures for individual businesses are hindered by the congestion problems, but cooperative solutions could offer a way out. Currently, not much is known about how to implement energy cooperation solutions on business parks in congested areas, and with the help of interviews with relevant stakeholders, insights on existing barriers, drivers and solutions will be gathered. Relevant stakeholders consist of business owners, park managers, grid operators and experts. Ultimately, with the findings from this qualitative data collection, a methodology will be designed to help developers of energy cooperation projects to accelerate the implementation of such projects.

In the face of the current environmental crisis led by the extended use of fossil fuels to cover society’s energy needs, sustainability objectives have been defined around the world. In the European Union, the European Green Deal has emerged as a leading guideline for its member states to achieve energy neutrality by 2050. The Netherlands has acted accordingly establishing its Climate Act, and setting ambitious objectives for this same year. Among these objectives, a full halt in natural gas use finds its way. Considering that the building sector, and specifically households, present a high consumption of energy, it results important to analyze how this sector can reduce its gas consumption and migrate towards the use of renewable heat systems.

The importance of behavioral characteristics and policy conditions that surround households regarding this transition has not been studied in depth in the documented literature and therefore stands as an opportunity area that this thesis covers. For achieving this, an agent-based model was developed using NetLogo, taking into account the characteristics of the Dutch population, being represented in the form of a sample neighborhood. The technical settings available in the model represent mature technologies that are currently in use in the Netherlands, and that can be used collectively or individually. Complementing and supporting these technologies, the Dutch government has made available a series of policy instruments, namely subsidies and credits, that financially support households in acquiring them. The availability of these subsidies is mainly dependent on the type of household ownership and additional factors, which are included in the model.

A behavioral theory known as the theory of planned behavior was implemented to define the households’ behavior. This theory links three elements, namely attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, to the final intention of households to execute an action. Regarding this specific topic, the study found out that the main beliefs that influence attitude are environmental friendliness, awareness of gas-saving measures, energy independence and economic drive. The subjective norms, which relate to social influence, are represented through the concept of belief dynamics, which develops the idea that social connections can shape a household’s set of beliefs. Finally, perceived behavioral control, which is a measure of the apparent facility to execute a certain action, is reflected in four main external elements, namely the availability of subsidies, the municipality efforts, time availability, and financial capability of households.

The results of the model showed that with the current conditions, the Netherlands would be able to achieve a total of 55% of gas-free households by 2050. This, in turn, would represent a reduction of 45% of the current natural gas being used. To evaluate the extent to which behavioral characteristics and policy conditions influence the heat transition, additional scenarios were developed, where random behavioral attributes were assigned. Following the same line, additional scenarios were defined where the number of available subsidies and the amount awarded per subsidy varied, in addition to a scenario with a higher gas price. These scenarios showed that behavioral characteristics are a very relevant factor and can shape the extent to which the heat transition can be achieved. The policy conditions showed an influence, both in the extent of the heat transition and on the uptake of specific technologies. However, the amount awarded per subsidy and the price of gas showed no relevant differences in gas consumption or technology choice.

The results provide insights into the possibilities for policymakers to ensure that this transition is fulfilled. Policies should target the beliefs of society, either by inducing people into them or by reinforcing them. Besides this, technology choice seems to be directly influenced by the number of subsidies available for each specific technology, which could be useful to target specific technologies that might result more promising than others. Finally, considering that varying the amount awarded per subsidy did not generate a substantial difference, there is a possibility to redefine the subsidy schemes and reallocate this financial means to support the tenants, which is currently the group with the most restricted access to subsidies.

To mitigate climate change by transforming the energy system citizen involvement is crucial. Citizen involvement can help achieve these goals as well as accelerate the transition, by harnessing local knowledge for the improvement of plans, creating a support base and the opportunity for citizens to come up with their own initiatives. Therefore this research is evaluating the preference of citizen segments for different participation methods in the energy transition, for different governance levels. A Latent Class Cluster Analysis (LCCA) is applied to data received from a survey, resulting in a classification of respondents based on attitudes towards participation, which can be identified by some characteristics resulting from demographic values and attitudes towards climate change. Additional interviews with policy-makers and citizen representatives identified challenges and opportunities for the integration of citizens' attitudes towards participation and participation processes in The Netherlands. Primary conclusions are that there are no fundamental differences in the participation methods applied to different governance levels, just as the preferences themselves do not vary significantly. Moreover, the majority of citizens appreciate being involved with participation. Therefore, the effort for participation can result in automatic alignment between the preferences and central and decentral participation. One of the main barriers identified is the disparity between the system world, where policies are formulated and the energy transition is planned, and the living world, which represents how citizens experience and perceive these changes. Opportunities for closing this gap are sharing results of participation processes with different governance levels, improving information provided to citizens and improving connection with the community by becoming more visible and organizing more participation.

The Dutch government is committed to transitioning to a low-carbon economy. District heating networks are considered essential for achieving this transition. This research aims to compare two different methods of involving citizens in decision-making and development related to district heating networks. The novel Participatory Value Evaluation (PVE) method is compared to a general survey to explore differences in the results of these two. The research approach encompasses multiple components, including 12 stakeholder interviews, the design and use of a Participatory Value Evaluation (PVE) and survey and subsequent analysis. The survey and PVE were even and randomly distributed across 2700 citizens of the neighbourhood Blijdorp in Rotterdam. This led to 138 completed PVE’s or surveys. As a last step the results of the two different consultations were analysed in terms of reaching the stakeholders goals. The research findings indicate that a Participatory Value Evaluation and survey have different results in incorporating the goals of the involved stakeholders. The PVE was able to create more detailed input for the stakeholders and was better in creating understanding of the complexity of the problems the stakeholders are facing. However, it is important to acknowledge that respondents in the PVE took longer to complete the evaluation and the PVE was rated more challenging than the survey. As a result, the response rate for the PVE was only half as much as the survey. This research contributes to the field of research into public participation in multiple ways. Firstly, the PVE has been applied in a new context. It has been shown that a PVE can be utilised to address the challenges of engaging citizens in the establishment of heat networks. Secondly, most studies on a PVE as a participatory method lack comparative research. This study demonstrates that a PVE and survey have distinct advantages and disadvantages. The identified advantages and disadvantages have been compared to findings from other studies on PVE. While some align with existing research, others present contrasting results.

The world is facing environmental change, mainly due to human actions. To prevent serious environmental, economic, and societal impacts of climate change, all United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) member countries have committed to limit global temperature increase to 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial level by 2050. Current mitigation measures, like moving to renewable energy, are not sufficient. Implementing circular economy can address this issue. A transition is required to move from a linear to a circular economy. The main research question for this research is: What can be learned about targeting the transition to a 100% circular Dutch infrastructure sector in 2050, through three social agreements if we take the perspective of Mission-oriented Innovation System (MIS)? This research also provided input for the second Integral Circular Economy Report (ICER) of 2023.
The Dutch economic model operates in a predominantly linear economy. The three principles for circular economy are: eliminate waste and pollution, circulate products and materials and regenerate nature. A large renovation awaits us. The very long lifespan of infrastructural projects makes the transition in this sector challenging. One of the four central frameworks to study transitions is the Mission-oriented Innovation System (MIS) approach. To tackle grand societal challenges, MIS also takes non-technological innovations into account. To see whether something has been learned from the transition process, four learning dimensions in sustainability-oriented learning have been identified. By pursuing all four dimensions, properties can be developed to take steps toward building a circular world.
The three cases studied for this research concern the materials concrete, wood, and steel. Per case a separate MIS analysis has been performed. The three cases have been generalized into two different categories: the “already established materials” and the “yet to be introduced materials”. The main dynamic in the already established materials is the negative feedback loop between the market formation and destabilization, availability of human and financial resources and the lack of directionality. Moreover, the lack of coordination also negatively affects the entire system. For the yet to be introduced materials the non-supportive socio-technical environment is the root cause of many negatively influenced system functions. Due to the lack of a supportive environment, there is a lack of financial resources which causes insufficient knowledge development. The lack of knowledge has as a result no clear direction for the transition and little possibilities to create a market for the new material.
The research question consists of four main elements: learning, transition, circular economy, and the MIS perspective. From studying the transition to a 100% circular Dutch infrastructure it can be learned that taking the scope of a social agreement can be a good start. In line with the learning dimension about boundary crossing and system thinking, the next step it to broaden the view. Also, there should be special attention to the successes in the strategy “narrow the loop” to motivate people.

Decentralised solar electricity generation on a large scale is a relatively new phenomenon. In the State of New York, the adoption of this form of renewable electricity generation has seen a surge over the last decade. However, policies that have been implemented over the last year, prompted experts to question the future of the market. The question is, what are the effects on energy security when these policies are in place? Using 3 relevant theories (TPB, VBN, and DOI) on household decision-making processes, a study of what is meant by decentralised solar and the context in which the market operates in the Empire State, I used an agent-based model to analyse the impacts of these policies in terms of energy security. Energy security is defined into 6 dimensions (Availability, Affordability, Accessibility, Acceptability, Ability, and Appeal). Experimentation and subsequent analysis showed a limited effect on most of these terms. However, a combination of these policies showed a less favourable effect on all scenarios as compared to the business-as-usual scenario. What was salient during experimentation was that the combination of the policies led to a difference in direction of the effects than when the effects of the policies implemented in isolation were added together. Indicating an inter-relationship between policies. Moreover, during market analysis it was found that the influence of the traditional utilities (owned by private investors) exert great influence on the policy making process, in their own favour. Based on this research, the future of decentralised solar electricity generation in the State of New York is going to be a tough battle with the greatest hurdle being overcoming the power of centralised utilities.

The depletion of finite fossil fuel resources, such as coal, oil, and gas, has become a global concern with significant energy security and sustainability implications. Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU) converts CO2 into valuable materials such as chemicals, polymers, and building materials and many other applications and offers a promising solution to reduce carbon emissions while creating valuable products and enhancing energy system flexibility. In contrast to Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS), CCU enables cost-effective carbon-dioxide removal and the production of carbon-based products. The Netherlands has set ambitious emission reduction targets in line with the Climate Agreement until 2050, focusing on five industrial clusters that can benefit from shared CO2 resources. These clusters collaborate to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which is critical in developing the CCU value chain. However, achieving cost-effective CCU implementation by 2050 requires substantial infrastructure and technological investment, including transportation considerations, aligning with broader CCS development efforts.
The problem is approaching the CCU development with a variety of utilisation cases and several beginning points in mind, that differ depending on the cluster and where multiple conditions for change exist. CCU implementation is complicated, and studies are scarce on how CCU implementation should be addressed, therefore it is unknown how the development of CCU in the Netherlands comes about. Therefore more study is on the CCU transition how this develops and under what conditions CCU could be implemented in the Netherlands. This resulted in the following research question:
”What are the carbon capture and utilisation niches in the Netherlands, and how to facilitate them?”
Strategic Niche Management (SNM) with supplementary insights from the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) and Innovation systems (IS) are used in this qualitative study to analyse niche development. As a result, this thesis constructs an integrated analytical framework using the schematic MLP diagram in conjunction with IS as a foundation to analyse the inter dynamics between the landscape, the regime, and the niche. The SNM framework is employed at the niche level to give a detailed examination of niche development. The research methodology is qualitative and comprises a combination of literature review and 14 semi-structured interviews with diverse stakeholders in the Netherlands. The data collected is subsequently subjected to thematic analysis.
The historical development of CCU has seen progress from the initial ideas in the 1990s to the establishment of significant initiatives and platforms in the 2010s and beyond. The focus has been improving CO2 utilization, reducing emissions, and creating economic and social benefits. Initiatives on implementing full CCU value chains between industrial clusters failed due to a lack of interest in development by the clusters and decreasing financial resources. The sector continued to evolve, with new partnerships and initiatives in the Netherlands in 2023, indicating a commitment to carbon utilization for sustainable and environmental purposes. Nonetheless, the sector is gaining traction in the development of technology due to new initiatives...

Sustainability transitions are socio-technical developments driving and being driven by policy change while being inherently value-laden and political. Thus, to understand how such sustainability transitions come about, it is crucial to comprehend how socio-technical and policy change co-evolve. This study applied the Multi-level Perspective (MLP) from transition studies and the Multiple Streams Framework (MSF) from the policy theory to study this co-evolution.

The knowledge gap that this research aims to bridge is the systematic understanding of how socio-technical transitions (resulting from the pressure of landscape and niches on the regime) and policy change (resulting from the intersection of the problem, policy, and politics streams of the MSF) combined affect each other and consequently influence sustainability transitions. Given the strong technical dimension and the significant contribution of national policies, the Dutch transition to electric cars is chosen as a case study to bridge the knowledge gap.

Bridging the knowledge gap answered the following main research question:

How can a study of socio-technical transitions using MLP and policy changes using MSF applied to the Dutch transition to electric cars help create insights into how to synthesise the two aforementioned theoretical frameworks?

Answering this research question resulted in 13 propositions that relate to the commonalities, differences, and (causal) relations between the two frameworks. The findings proved that certain concepts relating to the socio-technical challenges and niche developments of the MLP and the problem and policy streams of the MSF overlap between the two frameworks.

The findings also showed that certain concepts that form an inherent part of the MLP are missing from the MSF. The missing concepts in the MSF namely relate to technological innovation. It is foreseeable that a policy change framework is not expected to include the technical dimensions of its targeting socio-technical change. However, it is still important for such a framework to incorporate the implications that such technological developments have on the general course of events leading to policy change. This is where the potential of the MLP comes in to compensate for this limitation.

At last, the research proved the existence of certain causal relations between the two frameworks. Examples of such relations exist between regime barriers of the MLP and the policy entrepreneurs of the MSF as well as relations between regime actors of the MLP and the national mood and political ideology of the MSF.

To further unleash the full explanatory power of the MLP and MSF, it is recommended to synthesise the two frameworks together. This research offers the possibility of a future synthesis of the two frameworks by using the propositions that this research has developed. Such a new framework, combining both concepts of transition studies and policy literature, would be of great added value to both transition scholars as well as policy analysts aiming to understand how sustainability transitions come about.

In the wake of tackling energy poverty by its roots and protecting vulnerable groups, the European Commission introduced the so-called Renovation Wave, aiming to renovate 35 million inefficient buildings by 2050. However, even though the Renovation Wave was aimed to tackle energy poverty, recent studies have shown that renovation policies have failed to address energy poverty as renovation and social policies lack intersectoral integration resulting in the exclusion of vulnerable groups and an increased risk of social inequity. Moreover, various scholars have tried to identify vulnerability indicators that give rise to energy poverty; however, these have only focused on identifying socio-
economic and energy indicators. Consequently, scholars have called to include justice in renovation policies and explore how vulnerable groups can be identified. To address this knowledge gap, the following main research question was formulated:

Using a Case-Study Mixed Methods (CS-MM) approach, how can justice be included in renovation policies considering the socio-spatial vulnerability to energy poverty?

The results showed that by identifying vulnerable groups based on a locally developed index of the socio-spatial vulnerability to energy poverty and acknowledging their vulnerability, recognitional justice can be included in renovation policies. Besides, identifying tailored policy strategies in a multi-stakeholder environment that, on the one hand, focus on the distribution of renovation resources based on the needs and characteristics of the identified vulnerable groups and, on the other hand, on how the vulnerable groups can be included in the decision-making, distributional and procedural justice can be included in renovation policies. Thus, it can be concluded that by deploying the current CS-MM approach, justice can be included. 
The outcomes of the present study are twofold. Firstly, from a scientific perspective, the present study contributes to the current body of scientific knowledge on: (1) how vulnerable groups in need of renovation can be identified, (2) how justice can be included in renovation policies to address energy poverty and (3) how a CS-MM approach can be deployed to research how justice can be included in renovation policies considering the socio-spatial vulnerability to energy poverty. Secondly, from a societal perspective, this study provides insights to improve policy strategies that enable local decision-makers to identify vulnerable groups and include justice in renovation, considering the socio-spatial vulnerability to energy poverty.

According to the UNFCCC, the generation of electricity from coal fired power production (CFPP) is regarded as the greatest cause of climate change. Phasing-out CFPP and accelerating the deployment of renewable energy sources (RES) is, therefore, a crucial part of energy transitions for mitigating climate change. The Indonesian government has announced ambitious plans to reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions and reach net-zero by 2060. However, despite these ambitious plans, Indonesia plans to expand their use of CFPP in the coming years and deployment of RES is limited. Research suggests that the main problem with regard to a coal transition in Indonesia arises from vested interests of powerful and influential actors in the political economy of coal in Indonesia.
The purpose of this thesis is to conduct research on possible ways to enable a coal transition in the Indonesian province of South Kalimantan. A literature review on coal transitions has revealed that policies are regarded as the main drivers for coal transitions. This thesis adopts a broader view of policies as being a part of institutions. In view of the theory of New Institutional Economics, institutions can be defined as rules that structure social interactions. The main research question of this research is: How can a coal transition in South Kalimantan, Indonesia, be enabled by influencing actors in the Indonesian political economy of coal through institutional interventions?
The research approach of this thesis is a case study on the political economy of coal in Indonesia, and more specifically in South Kalimantan. The case study is an exploratory, single case study. The research methodology for the case study combines literature reviews, a desk study, and expert interviews.
The first part of this research provides a system analysis of the political economy of coal. The second part of this research aims to explore how a coal transition in South Kalimantan can be enabled by institutional interventions. This is conducted by complementing insights from literature on coal transitions, political economy of coal- or energy transitions, and literature directly related to coal or energy transitions in South Kalimantan and Indonesia, with insights from expert interviews. The expert interviews aim to establish insights into which of the proposed institutional interventions from literature would be politically feasible, given the existing political economy of coal.
Based on the results of this case study and the expert interviews, several institutional interventions are proposed. These are complemented with insights from systems thinking and insights to overcome the prevalent systems archetypes of the Tragedy of the Commons, Rule Beating, and Policy Resistance.
Further research needs to be conducted on: (1) adaptive management, (2) how to convince key actors to accelerate a coal transition, (3) examining the required investments, how these can be distributed, and how to ensure that investments and international financial support are used for the intended purposes and not redirected or misused, (4) exploring adequate alternative pathways for economic development in South Kalimantan, and (5) modelling the proposed institutional interventions.

Energy transition has become the lead focus of the European Union (EU) agenda. The introduction of European Green Deal (EGD) has further raised the targets regarding greenhouse gas emissions, Renewable Energy (RE) and Energy Efficiency (EE) and strengthened legislation concerning the circular economy and biodiversity. Forest biomass energy has been at the forefront of the EU policy-making.

In Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), where the forest biomass is mainly used for domestic heating in the form of round-wood, the issue of AQ has a significant role in the energy transition agenda. The burning of round-wood in old low-efficiency stoves cannot produce sufficient energy while exposing people to indoor and outdoor pollution. Moreover, the Particulate Matter (PM) from wood burning is associated with multiple health conditions.

The research aims to understand the impact of the forest bio-energy policy mix on EP; hence the following research question is formulated: How is the forest biomass energy policy mix affecting energy poverty alleviation in Sofia, Bulgaria? The case study approach is suited to answer the main research question. Furthermore, the case study approach allows for in-depth exploration of complex issues and uses multiple research methods.

The theoretical framework of the research is based on the policy mix conceptualisation proposed by Rogge and Reichardt (2016). Rogge and Reichardt define three building blocks of the policy mixes: elements, process and characteristics.

The conflicts existing between the national level policy instruments and the rest of the policy mix result in vertical and horizontal inconsistency. Nevertheless, synergies between the EU instruments and the appliance change programs result in synergies. The lack of capability of the local and national institutions and the perceptions conflict indicate a lack of policy mix coherence. At the same time, the policy mix does not have any instruments to cover market failures exposing households to higher energy cost and include policy instruments outside the national energy plans indicating a lack of comprehensiveness.

While the lack of consistency, coherence and comprehensiveness have some positive impact on energy cost, thus reducing energy poverty, the conflicts in the policy mix are sustaining the use of
traditional fuels. Overall, in the situation of surging energy prices, the forest bio-energy policy mix is sustaining the EP; however, in the case of lower energy costs, the existing conflicts constitute a significant obstacle in alleviating EP in Sofia.

The evaluation of the impact of the policy mix on energy poverty in Sofia shows that the lack of constancy, coherence and comprehensiveness and credibility does not always lead to adverse effects on the energy poverty indicators. Nevertheless, the results support the findings of other articles focusing on the impact of the energy transition on energy poverty and that the way to achieve energy poverty alleviation is to strive for consistent, coherent and comprehensive energy transition policies. In terms of the policy mix concept, the study shows the need for further empirical research on the multi-dimensional policy mixes and more emphasis on the instrument’s design features.

The aim of the thesis investigates and addresses what strategies municipalities can use in relation to collaborative action in a collaborative governance setting to facilitate heat transition at regional scale. The heat transition is a multifaceted problem where fragmentation and a deficient direction role of municipalities is a key institutional challenge. To address the problem, regional energy strategies are established to collaborate with state and non-state stakeholders, but the heat transition is still stagnating today. Collaborative governance is a governing arrangement that engages public and non-public organizations in a collective decision-making process to implement public policy to resolve social-technical problems. However, today the application of the collaborative governance theory is scarce on sustainable transformation. For this reason, the author decided to apply a collaborative governance lense on the current situation for heat transition.

The thesis first examines the collaborative governance framework, which is the most suitable to apply in relation to heat transition. In the second step, the selection of a comparative empirical research methodology is selected. Third, two RES regions with rural characteristics are investigated to get insight into the current situation. Lastly, the empirical findings are discussed in relation to current collaborative governance literature and governmental policy. Finally, recommendations for municipalities and other regional stakeholders can be provided.

The empirical findings show that collaborative governance conditions are rarely present to facilitate the heat transition at regional scale. The author identified crucial conditions within the system context and collaborative governance process itself, which is explainable by the iterative nature of the model. The conditions include the current deficient policy and legal framework, high level of contention among citizens, inadequate resource conditions. In the collaborative governance regime itself this results in lack of interdependence, trust and high level of uncertainty, through which no shared interest or common language are practiced. The thesis concludes with recommendations for the regional collaboration regarding heat transition for practitioners and for future research on collaborative governance.

Cities have been acknowledged as the critical actors in the context of climate change as they account for nearly 70% of the global CO2 emissions. Mayors and municipalities understand the urgency needed with the climate action and are acting at the forefront by engaging in transnational initiatives to support emissions reductions. The steady emergence of transnational municipal networks such as C40 or ICLEI is an indication of a paradigm shift in climate change governance. These TMNs have started to become diplomatic actors themselves and fostering climate action within the network. Hence, a mixed-method research design entailing both the quantitative and qualitative analysis is chosen to single out the impact of network membership on climate mitigation. The quantitative study pertains to a multiple regression analysis of factors that are expected to covariate with the CO2 emissions. Data from over 600 OECD cities were analysed. Although, the main hypothesis - i.e., that TMNs have a significant positive impact on CO2 emissions could not be verified. The qualitative analysis was performed after the statistical analysis and two case studies were compared: Bogota and Copenhagen. The results showed that C40 membership cannot be associated with the outcome i.e., - change in emissions owing to its limited influence in the implementation phase. The triangulation of results showed no causality between network membership and decrease in CO2 emissions in the OECD cities for the period of 2001-2019. The policy advice is highly relevant for both local and national governments, to leverage the full potential of TMNs. Finally, this analysis is the first approximation to measure the 'impact' of a climate network, hence recommendations are provided for future avenues to be explored to substantiate and validate my findings.

The accessibility and affordability of small scale renewable energy sources cause a shift towards an decentralized energy system with distributed electricity generation. Together with the increased attention to responsible innovation, the polycentric development of multiple governing authorities gives room for social innovation. This empowers citizens to become prosumers via Local Renewable Energy Communities (LREOs). Despite the trend towards more polycentricity, the mismatch between the existing regulations and rules - with focus on system efficiency, reliability and affordability – and the growing attention to new sustainability related concerns of social equality, environmental well-being and energy autarky is seen as the cause for the emergence of LREOs. This manuscript explores how these new sustainability related concerns, evoked by climate events, influences the value systems of citizens and subsequently lead to the emergence of LREOs. By using agent based modelling approach, this research incorporates multiple scales of analysis, diverse agent configuration and focus on the emergence of structures at the societal level from individual actions.

The constructed agent based model uses an illustrative approach to showcase how the impact of disruptive climate events changes the value systems of citizens. Over the course of the simulation the citizens take part in the three core mechanisms of the model. First citizens slowly become responsible citizen by recognizing the sustainability related concerns evoked due to climatic disrupting events. Second, due to social learning and the recognition of the sustainability related concerns, citizens change their value prioritization. Third, citizens decide, based on their responsibility, value prioritization (motives) and leadership capacities, to adjust their energy provision by choosing between i) Fossil fuel market (market entity that supplies fossil fuel generated electricity), ii) Sustainable market (market entity that supplies sustainable generated electricity), iii) individual pv-owner (citizens buy solar pv panels for individual use), and iv) joining/initiating an LREO. In this thesis I will show that in each of these core mechanisms, values and value change play a dominant role. The experiments show that during the process of recognizing the sustainability related concerns, citizens from the value orientation Growth and Personal-Focus mainly struggle to acknowledge their own contribution to the problem of climate change, while citizens from the Social-Focus and Self-Protection-Focus population scenarios tend to stagnate because of disbelieve in the impact of individual actions. For the second mechanism, change in value prioritization, the analysis have shown that within the Mixed population scenario, the social pressure of friends hinder citizens to ascribe more priority to sustainable related values. Interestingly, within populations with a homogeneous value prioritization the combination of social learning and the completion of the responsibility-cycle led to the increased prioritization of the sustainability related values of universalism and benevolence. These so-called divergent patterns of change in value prioritization is more often observed among social networks with citizens who were social competent and receptive to new opinions (Growth and Personal-Focusvalue orientations).For the third mechanism, the emergence of LREOs, the experiments demonstrate that only within the population scenarios with the Growth and Mixed value orientations the emergence of LREOs was visible. This was due to the fact that only within these two scenarios, populations contained a large group of citizens i) who recognized the concerns of sustainability, ii) who were community-oriented, iii) who were willing to act, iv) whom of which a small group was capable to lead, and v) who jointly agreed on the organisational form and technology in-use. The experiments have shown a big diversity in the agency, goals and preferences between different population-scenarios. This research made a methodological contribution by introducing the new concept of perception thermometers to study the impact of value-weighted experiences, events and information on the value prioritization system of citizens. Next to the perception thermometers, the scientific contribution of this research study showcases how to integrate new values (e.g. energy justice) within the existing Value Circumplex of Schwartz by considering it as a change in value specification. Moreover, this research used a holistic approach of analysing the emergence of LREOs as it combines external factors (e.g. consistent energy policies) with social factors (e.g. disagreements during board meetings due to the different motives of individuals) and individual characteristics (e.g. responsibility, motives, leadership capacities). Applying this multiple perspective of studying the emergence of LREOs in practise, creates a better understanding why LREOs emerge and how to stimulate/facilitate their founding process. These insights allow a more in-depth understanding of the emergence LREOs and can equip relevant researchers and practitioners with fruitful knowledge.

To reduce carbon emissions by 29% by 2030 and achieve the renewable energy target of 23% by 2025, Indonesia needs to utilize more renewable energy. Although Indonesia is endowed with many renewable energy resources such as hydro, solar, wind and biomass, renewable energy currently only accounts for 14.37% of the total power generation installed capacity (Directorate General of Electricity, 2021). Of these renewable energy sources, Indonesia has a large potential for small hydro power that can be developed, particularly for rural electrification. Around 19,385 MW of small hydro power potential lies across the Indonesian archipelago (ESDM, 2017). However, it has not been harnessed optimally where only 0.6% of the total potential contributes to the overall power plant installed capacity in Indonesia.
Small hydro power has been slowly developed in Indonesia, although it has been reintroduced since the 1990s. Therefore, it is necessary to study the development of small hydro power in Indonesia to gain insights into factors that have influenced the development, barriers, opportunities for broader adoption. This research takes a qualitative approach to analyze niche development using the Strategic Niche Management (SNM) with complementary insights from the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) and business models. The main research addressed in this thesis: "How has the small hydro power market niche developed in Indonesia, and how did business models facilitate the transition?". A case study research approach is used to gain insights on niche development while studying business models implemented in West Java. The data collection method includes interviews with 12 informants representing different groups of actors in the small hydro power sector and secondary data analysis.
The results show that the small hydro power niche was initially developed through grants from international donors and development agencies. Landscape factors that influenced niche development include low electrification in rural areas, the Asian Financial Crisis 1998 and the climate change issue. Learning process in the niche resulted in several local turbine manufacturers, improve local people capability and network of actors.
Niche actors have implemented business models to overcome adoption barriers of small hydro power in Indonesia. The cooperative business model has emerged to overcome social barriers and build the capacity of the local community. Niche actors created the PPP business model to support grant schemes through a partnership with the private firm. Furthermore, the IPP business model has emerged as incremental improvement in the regime sociotechnical dimension that facilitates niche development. A more significant contribution of the small hydro power plant in the electricity sector is expected in the future. This thesis shows that the Indonesian policymakers need to use shielding concepts from the SNM framework to formulate policies and regulations that support niche development.

Indonesia is facing a challenge in fulfilling its future energy demand given the combination of a consistently high economic growth and a fast-growing population. The country also needs to increase the integration of renewable energy into the electricity system. Wind energy, one of the renewable energy alternatives, is severely underutilized in Indonesia. Accordingly, the Indonesian government aims to increase the installed wind farm capacity by twelvefold within the next five years. This research aims to fill a knowledge gap in the literature by determining economic potential of onshore and offshore wind energy in Indonesia and formulating recommendations for institutional changes to proliferate wind energy development. A techno-economic analysis is performed by means of a GIS-based modelling to determine the technical and economic potential. Based on the analysis, onshore and offshore wind technical potential amounts to 17.6 – 30.9 GW and 470.6 – 595.6 GW, respectively. Meanwhile, the LCOE of wind energy can be as low as 6.1 (onshore) and 13.4 (offshore) USD ct/kWh. However, only up to 8.0% and 1.4% of the onshore and offshore wind technical potential, respectively, is economically feasible under the current regulations. An institutional analysis is then conducted to identify the institutional barriers hampering wind energy development. The analysis focuses on the institutional environment (L2) and governance (L3) layer of Williamson’s four layers of institutions framework. Barriers related to electricity pricing (L2) include regulatory uncertainty and a low purchase price of RE-based electricity. Furthermore, the barrier in infrastructure planning (L2) is the low amount of additional wind farm capacity being planned and the inconsistency in planning. Issues on property rights allocation (L2), i.e. ownership transfer and foreign ownership restrictions on wind energy projects, have been addressed in recently enacted laws. Lastly, barriers in contracting (L3) encompass prolonged negotiations between PLN and IPPs, poor law and contract enforcement, insufficient coordination and leadership in the multi-layered governance, and limited availability of project funding. Three institutional recommendations are derived based on the identified barriers. First, the Government shall create an electricity pricing masterplan, which entails a phased implementation of economic policy instruments. Second, project funding should be provided by sustaining the Government’s subsidy to PLN and promoting local participation and ownership in the projects. Third, an independent regulator dedicated to the electricity sector should be formed to ensure sufficient stakeholder involvement and monitor the actors’ activities in this sector. Future research can perform a similar study at the regional level, particularly at provinces with promising economic wind energy potential. Furthermore, future studies can involve a comprehensive design of institutions and a roadmap for wind energy development in Indonesia.

The Urban Heat Island effect increases the air temperature in cities compared to rural areas because cities have a lot more hardened surfaces than rural areas. As the amount of people living in cities increases and the global air temperatures rise, these negative effects will increase and mitigation action has to be taken. This research investigates how technical, household and institutional characteristics influence the adoption of Urban Heat Island mitigation solutions in existing neighbourhoods in the Netherlands. Through a desk study, expert interviews and agent-based model the effect of these characteristic on the adoption of green roofs, green façades, green gardens and cool roofs by households is researched. The results show that several characteristics found in literature do not have a significant effect on the fraction of adopted solutions and that there is no significant difference between the four investigated Local Climate Zones. It is concluded that only the energy reduction effect of a solution has a significant influence, that households with a higher income and households that own their dwelling adopt more mitigation solutions, that households in owners’ association adopt less solutions and that introducing or increasing the subsidy for green roofs or cool roofs increases the adoption of these solutions but not the average air temperature. Furthermore, the results show that households will mostly adopt green roofs. The outcomes of this research can be used by policy makers to differentiate policies between neighbourhoods and the model itself can be adapted to use it for other cities or neighbourhoods.

Wind farms are one of the main means for sustainable energy supply in the Netherlands. In the period of 2013-2020 provincial governments were tasked with siting a certain number of megawatts of wind energy on their territory. This led to the development of wind farms in many Dutch municipalities, of which the decision-making process has in many cases recently finished. In this process, citizen participation played a large role. This thesis research provides an exploratory study on the influence of this practice, using the following research question: How does the current practice of citizen participation influence the decision-making process of wind farms in the Netherlands? To answer this question, three cases have been selected of wind farms where the decision-making process was recently completed: Weijerswold in Coevorden, Spui in Hoeksche Waard and Nij Hiddum-Houw in Súdwest-Fryslân. These cases are chosen as they are very diverse regarding the type of initiator, the citizens involvement and the role of the municipality. Literature and policy documents are studied, and interviews are held with policy-makers, wind farm developers, citizens and experts. For each case, the main groups of actors that most highly influence the decision-making process are described: provincial and municipal government, initiators of wind energy and participating and activist citizens. The division of citizens into these two groups is somewhat artificial, as in reality these groups are not so strictly distinct. It also is noted that citizens participating and representing other citizens can be difficult, as in every case there are also citizens who fiercely object to the entire participation process.
All three cases are analysed and evaluated using the Rounds model of G.R. Teisman (2000). In this model, the activities of the different actors are described in different ‘rounds of decision-making’. It focusses on the interaction between actors, who can make decisions in varying combinations. This thesis includes case-specific graphical representations of the Rounds model. This has not been done before by other authors who applied this model, even though it is very suitable and adds clarity to the description in text: broad outlines are easier to visualise and cross-case analysis is simplified. The cases are also classified on Arnstein’s ladder of citizen participation, the most used academic reference for classification by influence. On this ladder, the current practice of citizen participation can best be described as placation or partnership, depending on the specific case. It is hereby noted that this influence is not the only valid measurement by which to assess a citizen participation process. Furthermore, six factors of influence are determined, which each have their own influence on the decision-making process. The analysis shows that municipalities especially take on very different roles in the process, ranging from full opposition of the proposed wind farm to organising the participation process. They are not forced into either position, but decide for themselves. Furthermore, government shapes the participation process, regardless of whether this is the province or the municipality. They determine the first four factors: the timeliness of citizen involvement, the flexibility of the government process framework, the diversity of the citizen board composition and the degree of decision options in the citizen board. The timeliness is one of the most mentioned issues: in all the cases, the decision for a number of megawatts had already been made before the citizen participation process in the form of a citizen board started. The flexibility of the process is an issue when citizens want to organise the process somewhat differently, or need more time to make decisions and inform the other citizens than initially envisioned. Regarding the citizen board composition, there are cases where only nearby residents are represented and ones where there are also many other societal groups, both having different advantages. When it comes to the degree of options, it is also a question of perception to how open the options really still are. Furthermore, the attitude of the initiators is of great importance in the participation process, as is described regarding the fifth factor: the initiator’s relative willingness to extra-legal concessions. What they have to do is not completely legally determined, so this willingness to make concessions that they are not strictly obliged to also influences the influence of citizens in the participation process. The sixth factor is the experienced legitimacy of the participation process and its outcome. This experienced legitimacy is influenced by the other factors, but action committees can also have a large influence on this, as is illustrated clearly in the Spui case. In general, it is very important that citizens are put in such a position that they can have influence. This includes, for example, that they are assisted by an expert. When the right conditions are created, citizens can have real influence on the outcome of the process, ranging from the exact location of the wind turbines to financial compensation. However, their influence on the process itself is usually very limited: government, and to a lesser extent initiators, should provide the boundaries in which citizen participation can be executed well. Another conclusion is that the current legal framework is insufficient to secure a well-designed citizen participation process. This is illustrated by the wide variety of methods of organising this process in the different cases and mentioned by multiple interviewees. Research from a legal perspective is therefore also of vital importance.

This thesis is an analysis of the implemntation of hydrogen in the Netherlands, in which the partnerships, organization and regulations are analysed from a Socio-technical transition perspective. The aim of this research was to find out how the implementation of hydrogen in the Netherlands has taken place and how this can be facilitated in the future. As an important aspect of hydrogen is cluster formation, this has also been taken into account in the research. Hydrogen cluster delineation is challenging, since they should have a focus not only on incremental innovations but also on radical innovations toward sustainability and often contain a mix of niche players and established regime actors. Additionally hydrogen has a plethora of end-uses, in a multitude of sectors/industries and on different scales. Therefore the clusters were delineated with the use of the proposed merged Technological Innovation Systems (TIS) and Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) framework from Markard and Truffer (2009). Once all niches that originate from the clusters were identified, these were analysed using the MLP and Strategic Niche Management (SNM), adapted to have more specific criteria. This research utilized a process perspective, which views reality in terms of a stream of events. More specifically the methodology of Event Sequence Analysis (ESA) was used, which provided specific tools for systematically identifying and comparing specific sequences of events. Primary data (from web pages, documents and news messages) was gathered through a specific data gathering process, defined by the ESA methodology, which was visualized as an event map. Secondary data from interviews were used as validation for the regular ESA. From the ESA spanning from the introduction of hydrogen as a sustainable energy carrier around 2001 until 2020, it has become clear that hydrogen implementation in the Netherlands has performed quite well from an internal niche perspective. Despite the high-quality internal niche processes across the board, implementation has been moderate due to the financial barriers that come with hydrogen, which can be attributed to the sheer expense of projects due to the niches’ infancy, the large-scale nature of the transition, with the infrastructural overhaul that needs to take place and some current legislative limitations, such as sub-optimal directives towards hydrogen-grid mixing. Next to this, there are three apparent patterns that can be identified. (1) Firstly, there is a clear succession of niches, meaning that there is a clear link between successive events which influence each other. (2) Secondly, there is a dependence on international collaboration, with most niche implementations being embedded within international (mostly European) initiatives and projects or have been subsidized by them. (3) A final pattern is the regional embedding of the implementation of most of the niches. This can be attributed to the large-scale nature of the transition and the dependence on synergistic implementations with dependence on supply to multiple sectors. To conclude, from the ESA it has become clear that the hydrogen transition is complex and needs active stimulation to become adopted more widely. This thesis suggests that the upscaling should be pursued with three main aspects in mind: (1) Firstly, it should be done within embedded regions, which are mainly formed in (harbor) clusters. (2) Secondly, the ESA proved that international collaboration is of essence in this transition. (3) Lastly, there should initially be a concrete focus on knowledge creation, due to the complexity of the transition, there is still a lack of knowledge with regard to the optimal implementation and a lack of educated personnel, which will all be pivotal for the success of this transition.

There is a pressing need for sustainable energy solutions in refugee camps. Community solar mini-grids, with their costs, reliability, and ease of installation can meet this energy need and contribute to the development and empowerment of camp residents. This research aims to answer the question of "To what extent can community-based governance approaches for solar mini-grids provide energy access in refugee camps?". A case study is conducted by applying the Institutional Analysis and Design (IAD) framework to understand the decision-making processes regarding energy provision in the Kigeme refugee camp. Desk research and expert interviews are conducted to understand the interactions between the actors, outcomes of policy decisions, and challenges of using solar mini-grids in displacement settings. The results show that giving the ownership of the system to refugee communities or a cooperative of camp residents is an ambitious goal due to political and institutional reasons. However, a sense of ownership can be created by using participatory activities during planning, design, implementation, and operation and maintenance of the system to increase the resilience of refugees and improve the sustainability of the system.