This master's thesis explores the role of policy innovation of policies, programs, and policy instruments within the domain of heat transition in the built environment in the Netherlands, focusing specifically on the role of municipalities in navigating this complex transition towards a natural gas-free future by 2050, as mandated by the National Climate Agreement (2019).

Introduction
The research starts by outlining the ambitious goal of the Dutch government to significantly reduce CO2 emissions by 2050, emphasizing the critical target of reducing natural gas usage in the built environment in the Netherlands. The introduction highlights the urgent need for innovative policy approaches to accelerate the heat transition, especially in light of geopolitical factors such as the crisis in Ukraine, which underscore the urgency of energy independence.

Theory
Starting with a literature review regarding the different conceptual defnitions of (policy) innovation and the framework provided by Schaffrin et al. (2015), the study delves into the concept of policy innovation, exploring its significance in the context of the heat transition in the built environment. The research identifies the multifaceted nature of innovation, encompassing the novelty of policies, their adoption, and eventual impact. The theoretical foundation emphasizes the importance of analyzing policy output to gauge the extent of innovation within municipalities' strategies for the heat transition.

Methodology
An exploratory study design using qualitative research methods is outlined, focusing on a case study analysis of Transition Vision Heat (TVH) documents from ten of the most populous municipalities in the Netherlands. The research adapts and modifies Schaffrin et al.'s (2015) framework to assess policy output and innovation to fit the context of the heat transition in the built environment in the Netherlands, employing Atlas.ti software for document analysis. The methodology section discusses the selection criteria, data collection, and analysis processes, highlighting the study's systematic approach to evaluating policy documents.

Results
The results section presents a detailed analysis of policy output across eight categories, revealing a spectrum of innovation levels among the analyzed municipalities. Amsterdam is noted for its high scores in integration, target groups, and alternative technologies, showcasing a proactive approach to the heat transition. Furthermore, TVHs were scored using the modified framework of Schaffrin et al (2015). This research identifies significant differences in policy integration, stakeholder involvement, and the specificity of alternative solutions across municipalities. Despite these differences, commonalities include a shared commitment to updating the TVH every five years and aiming for a gas-free environment by 2050.

Conclusion
The thesis concludes that while Dutch municipalities exhibit a range of innovative strategies in their approach to the heat transition, there is room for improvement, particularly in setting concrete targets and detailed implementation procedures. The study advocates for municipalities to take a more directive role in leading the heat transition, emphasizing the need for tailored and innovative solutions that reflect local contexts. The research suggests that a comprehensive, collaborative, and context-specific approach is essential for successfully navigating the complexities of the heat transition toward a sustainable, natural gas-free built environment in the Netherlands.

Discussion
The discussion emphasizes the scientific added value of adapting Schaffrin et al.'s (2015) framework to the context of the heat transition in the built environment, underlining the importance of scope on alternate technology solutions and the target groups involved. Limitations such as the subjective nature of measuring policy innovation and the representativeness of the sample size are acknowledged. The section also suggests the need for future research to include broader samples and expert validation to enhance the framework's reliability. Furthermore, the role of local initiatives and the inclusion of residents' opinions and viewpoints in TVHs are emphasized as crucial for developing tailored, context-specific policy solutions. The involvement of residents (e.g., in the form of communities) can contribute to a more appropriate approach that contributes to the advancement of the heat transition in the built environment in the Netherlands.

There is a lack of academic attention towards the relationship between local governments and circular economy social innovations. While academic evidence suggests that local governments and policymakers can positively affect the success of social innovations, there is a lack of in-depth studies on how exactly they support social innovation. The main question of this study: How does the municipality of Rotterdam respond to the emergence of social innovation in circular economy, specifically to CCIs? This study aims to discover what circular economy social innovations entails in the municipality of Rotterdam, what policies and policy instruments are employed by the municipality of Rotterdam vis-à-vis circular citizen initiatives, how the interaction between the municipality of Rotterdam and circular citizen initiatives affects the transformative capacity of the latter, which bottlenecks and/or tensions are experienced with regards to the relationship between the municipality and circular citizens initiatives, and how the bottlenecks should be resolved according to circular citizen initiatives and the municipality of Rotterdam. The Local Climate Policy and Action framework, and transformative social innovation theory are utilised to develop semi-structured interviews. Said interviews are conducted among two civil servants who are involved with the citizen initiative, six participants of the citizen initiatives, and two academic experts. The results reveal four main bottlenecks: clashing institutional logics, tensions between civil servant and CCI participants, municipal and national regulations, clashing ideas of value-creation, and provision of accommodation. Analysis also revealed that the municipality does improve the transformative capacity of CCIs, albeit to a limited extent. Subsequently, these results discussed and explain using historic accepted practises that ensue from historic institutional logics. The paper continues by drawing conclusions regarding the discussed results and answering the research questions. Finally, recommendations for future research are made.

The Dutch government published a Climate Accord in 2019 which stated that all houses in the Netherlands should be heated without CO₂ emissions. The Dutch built environment is currently being heated with natural gas which forces actors within the heating system of the Dutch built environment to look for new technologies. At the same time, the increasing electricity demand results in grid congestion.

This thesis investigates the use of hydrogen for heating homes in the Netherlands and explores different future scenarios. The research question that is being answered in this thesis is “What is the development status of the hydrogen niche for heating homes in the Dutch-built environment and which socio-technical scenarios can be expected?’’. The theoretical frameworks, Multi-level Perspective, Strategic Niche Management, and Socio-technical scenarios were complementary used to analyse the context. With these theories, the interaction between technology and social elements have been analysed. Additionally, a qualitative study is executed by conducting 14 semi-structured interviews with experts from the field.

There are various hydrogen technologies developed for built environments. Some technologies are focussed on space heating like the hydrogen boilers in combination with a heat pump. While there are also technologies being developed which are primarily aimed at addressing the electrical net congestion challenge like fuel cells. These fuel cells also enable decentralized hydrogen production and storage. However, the feasibility is doubted among the interviewers due to limited scalability and safety concerns.

Currently, the top-of-mind barriers regarding the adoption of hydrogen in the Dutch built environment are mainly the uncertainty about the availability of green hydrogen, future prices, labour shortage, and user acceptance. The dominant barrier is the uncertainty about hydrogen availability. Due to still lacking availability of hydrogen companies are hesitant to invest resources in the development of hydrogen applications. The barrier labour shortage has not been found in previous literature, which makes this finding a novel contributions to academic research.

In this study 2 socio-technical scenarios regarding hydrogen in the Dutch built environment are formulated. In scenario 1 a reconfiguration transition occurs, whereas in scenario 2 a transformational transition occurs. These scenarios differ on the extent the electricity grid congestion is resolved. In both scenarios an extensive international hydrogen market established. Scenario 1 deals with a large amount of hydrogen and poor electricity grid capacity. In this scenario, hydrogen will be used as an alternative energy carrier to the built environment by utilizing fuel cells. Scenario 1's demonstration that fuel cells can be part of the solution for the electricity grid congestion. In scenario 2, the hydrogen economy is established and there is a resolved grid issue, which will lead to hydrogen being used for direct space heating.

This study shows how the niche could react to the development of hydrogen availability and the ability of the network operator’s electricity grid capacity in determining the role of hydrogen in the Dutch built environment. Additionally, it underscores the significance of government commitment and proactive policies for sustainable energy transitions.

The Paris Agreement seeks to limit global temperature rise and achieve climate neutrality by 2050. The UN's Sustainable Development Goal 7 emphasizes sustainable energy access, with smart grids playing a crucial role. These grids adapt to user behavior and interconnect various components. While smart grids address challenges in integrating renewable energy, their complex socio-technical nature demands a multidisciplinary approach. Institutions are vital in smart grid development, but their importance often goes unnoticed. The interplay of stakeholders, technology, and institutions complicates smart grid implementation. Although existing research largely focuses on technical aspects, a holistic approach considering social, economic, environmental, and institutional dimensions is essential. This study aims to bridge this gap by employing the Institutional Analysis & Development (IAD) framework to enhance the Netherlands' electricity/energy system design, particularly at the community level, concerning the impacts of institutional rules on smart grid development and implementation.

The chosen research approach is a comparative case study, focusing on smart grid integration in the Netherlands. The Institutional Analysis and Development framework aids in analyzing complex socio-technical systems, particularly energy transitions and smart grids. Three cases were examined: Schoonschip Amsterdam, GridFlex Heeten, and Groene Mient The Hague. Data collection involved literature review and 14 semi-structured interviews with experts and stakeholders. Interview data was deductively coded using the IAD framework, facilitating comparative case analysis and cross-case analysis using the ASI diagram (Actors, System & Institutions).

The transition of the Dutch electricity system into a competitive liberalized market has increased the importance of smart grids for sustainability. Decentralized energy production, facilitated by smart grids, requires technological advancements and institutional changes at various levels. Successful smart grid implementation in the Netherlands involves obtaining exemptions, feasibility studies, and engaging legal entities like homeowners' associations and energy cooperatives. Cases emphasized the significance of pre-exemption feasibility studies, technological requirements, stakeholders like Distribution System Operators, and energy management systems.

The findings highlight the uniqueness of each case and the role of institutional rules. In Schoonschip, boundary, position, choice, and payoff rules were pivotal. GridFlex highlighted position, choice, information, and scope rules. Groene Mient showcased boundary, position, choice, payoff, and scope rules. These case studies underscore complexities in decision-making and governance within smart grid initiatives. Successful implementation requires considering technology, institutions, and stakeholders as indicated by the ASI diagram. The IAD framework analysis reveals the impact of biophysical conditions, community attributes, and rules-in-use on smart grid outcomes.

Recommendations include further research on evolving rules, understanding actor positions, interdisciplinary research, integrated decision-making frameworks, empirical case studies, and policy recommendations such as financial support, clear policy roles, local smart energy systems, positive framing, standardized data exchange, and umbrella organizations for cohesive local smart grid projects.

In conclusion, the study underscores the intricate nature of smart grid implementation, emphasizing the need for comprehensive consideration of technology, institutions, and stakeholders. The IAD framework sheds light on the complex dynamics, guiding effective decision-making and policy formulation for successful local smart grid development.

This thesis delves into the intricate challenges facing The Netherlands as it aims to fulfil its ambitious CO2 emission reduction goals by means of the Regional Energy Strategy (RES) framework. A significant issue highlighted is the emergence of an unintended wealth gap and energy poverty affecting over 600,000 people, which restricts their involvement in the energy transition process. These concerns point to the necessity of comprehensive research to ensure marginalized groups’ active involvement in the energy transition.

The core objective of this study is to scrutinize the impact of governance and decision-making practices in the Regional Energy Strategy of Rotterdam The Hague (RES-RDH) on energy justice principles. It seeks to define and understand the concepts of ’local ownership’ and ’equitable participation' within the RES-RDH context. By exploring ways to incorporate energy justice principles into decision-making processes, this research aims to create a comprehensive reference tool to guide the region’s energy transition towards fairness and equity.

The investigation employs a literature review, policy document analysis, and interviews to address the main research question and its four sub-questions. The sub-questions focus on defining equitable participation and local ownership in the RES-RDH context, understanding the influence of institutional governance on these aspects, identifying specific challenges in organizing equitable participation, and exploring how energy justice principles can enhance decision-making processes. The findings collectively answer the main research question and contribute to the final reference tool’s development.

The theoretical framework incorporates elements of energy justice and public decision-making, enabling a thorough exploration of the equitability and inclusivity of RES- RDH’s decision-making processes. It examines equitable participation, local ownership, and energy justice principles through theoretical lenses, emphasizing the importance of engaging diverse stakeholders, ensuring local community involvement, and balancing power dynamics...

The Netherlands is dedicated to countering climate change, and a necessary approach is transitioning to renewable energy and promoting the electrification of the Dutch industry. However, this shift from a centralized to a decentralized energy system has led to grid congestion due to the existing grid structure designed for lower energy demand and centralization. Limited grid capacity requires improvement, but the traditional solution of grid expansion proves difficult, resulting in a rising number of unmet requests for transmission capacity. A swift solution is needed to avoid hampering the energy transition and economic growth.
One proposed solution is the implementation of Energy Hubs (Ehubs) in congested areas, but this concept is relatively new and requires further exploration. This study aims to understand how Ehubs can be integrated into the Dutch energy system from a governance and innovation perspective. The research utilized qualitative methods, including desk research and expert interviews, employing four theoretical frameworks: Multi-Level Perspective (MLP), Strategic Niche Management (SNM), Governance of Change (GoC), and Backcasting.
The MLP framework identified three main influences on Ehubs' development. Positive aspects include their potential to alleviate congestion, while legal uncertainties regarding shared grid capacity and the financial and temporal demands of Ehubs impede progress. The SNM framework revealed that difficulty in initiating pilot projects hindered Ehubs' niche-level development. Stakeholders shared high expectations for Ehubs but lacked empirical confirmation, generating uncertainty. The GoC framework indicated that the concept of change through Ehubs is widely accepted, fostering legitimacy. Instruments were derived from the MLP and SNM frameworks to guide the GoC framework, culminating in a shared vision via Backcasting.
A shared future vision states that by 2030, local Ehubs would ease energy flow and transport capacity exchange, reducing grid congestion and expanding beyond electricity to heat and other energy forms. Established parties are encouraged to initiate Ehubs' development, reaffirming expectations through pilot projects. Overcoming challenges in setting up pilots could draw insights from citizen energy communities, while future research should explore aligning their requirements with Ehubs. Furthermore, the adaptability of GoC and Backcasting frameworks to sustainable transitions should be examined, and a follow-up study could assess evolving expectations and instrument effectiveness.
Recommendations for stakeholders revolve around three main changes in the follow-up agenda:
1. Practical learning through pilot projects should be prioritized.
2. Legal certainty for Ehubs must be established.
3. Ensuring societal benefits from Ehubs requires measures to align them with societal goals.
Stakeholders are encouraged to actively contribute to implementing these changes, shaping Ehubs' future impact effectively. This iterative process ensures ongoing adaptability and enhancement.

Climate change has devastating effects on society, increasing the risk of natural disasters and associated health issues. These effects are caused by the greenhouse gases emitted by humans. Aligned with the Paris Agreement, the Dutch government aims to achieve a 100% reduction in emissions by 2050, striving for climate neutrality.

Climate justice, an emerging theoretical concept, recognizes the unevenly distributed burdens and benefits of carbon emissions and calls for effective mitigation strategies. One of the most polluting sectors is the energy sector, which still heavily relies on fossil fuels. To achieve climate neutrality, a transition to sustainable forms of energy is necessary. Energy justice, a theoretical framework advocating for equitable energy distribution, representative energy decision-making, and a balanced cost-benefit distribution among citizens, has gained traction in recent academic literature.

In the Netherlands, the energy transition is governed at regional and local levels through regional energy strategies. However, understanding of local and regional governance in this context is somewhat limited. This research combines the concepts of regional governance and the energy justice framework and applies them to the Rotterdam-The Hague energy region.

The research objectives of this thesis are to comprehend regional energy decision-making, identify stakeholders experiencing energy injustices, examine how these injustices are currently addressed, and propose potential improvements.

Utilizing a mixed-methods approach involving interviews and media analysis, the research reveals instances of energy injustices experienced by citizens in this region, including energy poverty. While the regional and local governments are presently unaware of this framework, they acknowledge the importance of a just energy transition and are actively developing strategies to mitigate these injustices.

Policy recommendations encompass various levels: providing structural financial support to local governments at the national level, promoting knowledge exchange and cross-border collaboration at the regional level, and enhancing citizen participation, ownership in energy projects, and insulation programs at the local level.

In conclusion, this thesis offers valuable insights into local and regional energy transition governance, focusing on energy justice, energy poverty, and citizen participation.

The urgent need to address global warming and achieve the 1.5°C target set by the Paris Agreement necessitates an energy transition in Europe, with offshore wind energy in the North Sea playing a vital role. Despite the complexity of the North Sea's offshore energy system, the existing literature lacks a comprehensive study of the entire system, especially the crucial transmission aspects connecting onshore and offshore systems. This master thesis addresses this research gap by applying an Extended Multi-Level Perspective (E-MLP) framework to the North Sea offshore energy system.

The study begins with an analysis of actors involved in the energy transition, utilizing methods like social network analysis (SNA), PESTLE analysis, and scenario analysis. The focus is on the Dutch and German electricity transmission system operator, specifically its department Grid Field Operations - Offshore (GFO-O), to understand how E-MLP can enhance comprehension of the complex and dynamic nature of the North Sea offshore energy system.

Through a mixed method approach, combining MLP, actor analysis, SNA, PESTLE analysis, and Socio-Technical Scenarios, both qualitative and quantitative data were collected and applied to gain a holistic understanding of the system. The research reveals that the North Sea offshore energy system is heavily influenced by onshore developments, supply chain considerations, grid congestion, and demand flexibility. The use of artificial intelligence enables niche innovations, while the role of small nuclear reactors is limited. Offshore focuses on energy hubs, standardization, and wind park expansion, but moving further offshore increases vulnerability. The future role of hydrogen remains uncertain, and cybersecurity and multi-use of space are crucial factors.

The study offers recommendations for GFO-O to strengthen its position, attract digital talent, invest in AI capabilities, explore demand flexibility, and investigate green hydrogen production. Policymakers should prioritize multi-use of space and engage with the military to address security threats. Incentivizing demand flexibility at the consumer level can support renewable energy production and ease the offshore system's burden.

This research contributes to the field by applying the E-MLP framework to the North Sea offshore energy system, examining actor interactions, informal institutions, and providing valuable insights for scenario analysis. However, the study acknowledges potential limitations in data availability, interview perspectives, and social network analysis. Future research can delve into specific factors such as the offshore supply chain, explore heterogeneous analysis of the oil and gas sector, and apply E-MLP to other energy transition regimes, extending the study's impact and refining the framework's application.

In conclusion, this master thesis enhances the understanding of the North Sea offshore energy system and provides policy-relevant insights for inclusive policymaking, supporting Europe's energy transition efforts to combat global warming.

In recent years, the French onshore wind industry has met increasing barriers to new projects despite more supportive policies being implemented. This research uses an adaptation of MLP and SNM transition study frameworks to examine the reasons for these shortfalls.
The thesis include two levels of study: a national level and a local level of governance. The local level includes a case study from working with a wind developer and serves as a microcosm to illustrate the national level.
The barriers to implementation met at both levels are identified and their discrepancies compared. Finally, the thesis ends with recommendations to developers and policy makers to overcome them.

Climate change is happening, and the consequences of it are becoming increasingly visible. Climate goals have been set in the Paris Agreement to stop climate change. The goal in the Netherlands is to reduce emissions in 2030 by 55% and achieve net zero by 2050.

An essential element in achieving these goals is the energy transition. These goals can only be achieved if everybody contributes to this energy transition This also means that underprivileged neighbourhoods will have to participate.

Several research projects have been performed on governance, but few or none have focused on governance issues concerning energy transition in underprivileged neighbourhoods so far. Therefore, a knowledge gap exists regarding the governance arrangements in the energy transition in underprivileged neighbourhoods.

The exploratory approach was chosen. A case study was performed in the neighbourhood Bospolder-Tussendijken. Data was gathered by performing a desk study and conducting thirteen interviews with directly involved stakeholders and experts. The data gathered have been used to analyse the decision-making process using the IAD framework, the four-layer model, and the energy justice decision-making principles. Furthermore, the seven basic elements of governance arrangements have been addressed.

In the neighbourhood of Bospolder-Tussendijken, the energy transition is focused on the disconnection of natural gas and towards the connection of a district heating grid. On the neighbourhood level, three major players are present, the municipality of Rotterdam, Havensteder and Eneco, who came to an area agreement. This impacted the decision-making since the alternative and the project area were decided. The decision-making between these parties is influenced by the Climate Agreement, subsidies and the collaboration agreement with energy-related stakeholders in the neighbourhood.

However, this did not result in a completely just energy transition. The influence of neighbourhood residents on the decision-making process was negligible, and the information provision towards residents was mainly project-focused. Everyone who lived within the project area could connect to the district heating grid. The coupling between gas and heat prices is troubling, even more because Eneco asks for the maximum tariff the ACM allows. This affects the affordability, especially in this poor neighbourhood. Next to this, the project costs were much higher than expected. District heating can be considered more sustainable than natural gas. Compared with alternative solutions, it does not cover the cooling needs during summer.

To perform a more just energy transition, a governance arrangement is proposed with changes made on the national, municipal, and neighbourhood levels.
The higher levels of government could take more decisive and consistent positions.
On the municipal level, municipalities are advised to revise their transition visions heat.
On the neighbourhood level, residents should be involved by letting them clarify their position. They can get involved by educating about the energy transition. The active citizens should get a seat at the decision-making table.

With this proposed governance arrangement, a more just and efficient energy transition could be performed in underprivileged neighbourhoods. This research provides multiple additions to the current debate about a just energy transition.

Wind energy is deemed important in the Netherlands in sustainable energy transitions. While Commercial Wind Energy Project Developers (CWEPDs) bring professionalism, Local Energy Cooperatives (LECs) promote local renewable initiatives. The Dutch Klimaatakkoord aims for 50% community-owned renewable electricity, but real-world implementation of community involvement is unclear. The Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework helps understand 'rules-in-use' for decision-making. This study explores how LECs and CWEPDs interact with these rules, focusing on Dutch onshore wind farm projects. Using 14 case studies, the research compares organisational forms in project outcomes, employing interviews and written sources for data collection and statistical testing and QCA for analysis. Key findings include LECs completing projects faster and with fewer objections than CWEPDs and the importance of transparent information sharing. The study suggests policy and development implications, highlighting the need for more inclusive and transparent decision-making in wind energy projects.

The global shift towards sustainable and renewable energy sources is an undeniable necessity. Energy communities, grounded in principles of community participation and environmental sustainability, are emerging as key players in driving this transformation. Flanders, a region in Belgium, has witnessed the rise of energy communities as they take on the challenges and uncertainties inherent to their mission. This thesis embarks on a journey to uncover the dynamics, challenges, and opportunities that these energy communities in Flanders face in their quest to facilitate the energy transition.

While energy communities have garnered attention as a social innovation, there remains a need to explore the specific context of Flanders, its niche development, and up-scaling patterns. To address this gap, our research focuses on understanding the unique characteristics and challenges of energy communities in Flanders and their role in shaping the regional energy landscape. This study seeks to answer the following main research question:

"What are the characteristics, challenges, and scaling patterns of energy communities in Flanders, Belgium, and how do these communities contribute to the energy transition?"

To address the research question, a qualitative data analysis with a case study approach was adopted. Qualitative data collection methods, such as stakeholder interviews, were utilized to gain insights from the local actors involved in the energy community niche. Additionally, the Strategic Niche Management (SNM) framework was applied to assess the development and scaling of these energy communities. The analysis considered various factors, including expectations, network formation, and key learning processes within the niche. Also, the concept of Scaling the Community Energy niche was analysed based on the qualitative data collected from the semi-structured interviews and the different typology patterns of scaling this niche innovation in the Flanders region have been displayed. Moreover, the concept of shielding and nurturing the community energy niche and their future perspective in the Flanders area is discussed on.

The study uncovered a series of insights regarding energy communities in Flanders:

1. Common Challenges for Energy Communities: Energy communities in Flanders face complex regulatory environments, competition for land, and the need to enhance public awareness and business case viability. They also grapple with legislative variations, participant knowledge gaps, administrative burdens, and the need for clarity in objectives and definitions. Adapting to evolving legislation and managing transaction costs are additional challenges.

2. Challenges Specific to DSO and VEKA: Distribution system operators (DSOs) like Fluvius must reduce grid fees fairly to avoid burdening non-participants. Flemish Energy and Climate Agency (VEKA) should ensure a comprehensive understanding of complex legislation and manage administrative complexity.

3. Niche Characteristics and Processes: The research identified three critical attributes of the community energy niche in Flanders, including dynamics of expectations, network formation, and essential learning processes. These aspects were elaborated upon, providing a comprehensive understanding of the niche dynamics in the region.

The study significantly contributes to several academic debates:

1. Strategic Niche Management (SNM): The application of the SNM framework to analyze Flanders' energy communities enriches the understanding of how these communities conform to or challenge niche management processes. It confirms the adaptability of SNM in assessing their development.

2. Empowerment of Community Energy Niches: By exploring empowerment strategies used by Flanders' energy communities, the study aligns with debates on empowerment and adaptation in community energy niches.

3. Up-Scaling Patterns in Flanders: The research identified different up-scaling patterns, confirming the relevance of various strategies within the region.

4. Stakeholder Involvement: The study complements other research by providing insights into how stakeholders operate and coordinate within Flanders' energy communities.

5. Investments in Renewable Energy Initiatives: In addition to investigating determinants of investments, the study also explores economic factors like job creation, local economic stimulus, and property values.

6. Community-Based Governance and Sustainable Energy Usage: The research expands the focus on up-scaling patterns and empowerment strategies driving sustainable energy behaviour within Flanders energy communities.

Additionally, The study offers several recommendations for policymakers to support energy communities in Flanders:


- Standardize and harmonize energy community regulations across different Belgian regions to reduce complexity and uncertainty.
- Introduce participative criteria in tenders for renewable energy projects to enable energy communities to compete fairly.
- Support targeted public awareness campaigns to bridge the gap between energy communities and the broader public.
\item Explore financial incentives tailored to the Belgian context to establish a compelling business case for energy community participation.
\item Invest in educational and training programs to bridge the knowledge gap among participants.
\item Streamline registration processes and regulatory compliance to reduce the administrative burden.
\item Provide clear definitions and objectives for energy communities within the Belgian context.
\item Stay responsive to changing regulations to enable energy communities to thrive.
\item Encourage collaboration, knowledge sharing, and advocacy efforts within the Flanders energy community niche.
\end{itemize}

In conclusion, this research contributes to a better understanding of energy communities in Flanders, offering insights for policymakers and energy communities. It emphasizes the importance of empowering these communities to accelerate the energy transition and achieve lasting benefits for society and the environment in the region.

To achieve 23% renewable energy by 2025, 29% emission reduction by 2030, and net zero emission in 2060, Indonesia needs to accelerate the transition to renewable energy such as solar energy. Despite the abundant solar energy potential, the contribution of solar PV has only reached 0.05% of the energy mix in 2021 (MEMR, 2021). The development of solar PV face challenges such as land availability, land acquisition, geographical problem, and timely permits (Patil et al., 2017). A niche rooftop PV serves as an alternative to solve these problems. This study focuses on rooftop PV niche development in the sustainability transition of Indonesia. 
The sustainability transition is a complex process due to the involvement of various stakeholders (Geels et al., 2017). Moreover, Indonesia's high dependency on fossil fuels adds complexity to the transition. Therefore, it is necessary to study the development of rooftop PV in Indonesia to investigate factors influencing the niche development, address the sociotechnical aspect, and identify barriers and opportunities for broader diffusion. This research uses qualitative analysis by adopting Strategic niche management (SNM) with complementary insights from the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) and business model. A case study was selected to gain a clearer understanding of different rooftop PV business models in three provinces (Jakarta, Banten and West Java). The data collection was conducted using interviews with 15 respondents from various groups and desk research. The study aims to answer the question, “How has the rooftop PV niche developed in Indonesia, and to what extent do business models influence niche development?”
The results show that rooftop PV was initially developed in the 1990s through a solar home system innovation in Sukatani village. Landscape factors influencing niche development are low electrification in rural areas, the Asian financial crisis, energy security, climate change, covid-19, and international market pressure. At the regime level, factors include development plan (e.g., Repelita), regulation (e.g., net-metering), and dominant stakeholder PLN (e.g., permit approval) founded influencing the niche development. Another factor, such as the learning process (e.g., demonstration project, survey, and knowledge transfer), provided learning to the technical, policy development, and public awareness. The result shows niche development of rooftop PV faces financial, institutional, policy, technical and awareness barriers. Niche actors have implemented business models to overcome the barriers. The host-owned business model is developed to provide access for the consumer to be prosumers who can benefit from the feed-in tariffs. The third-party business model enables users to overcome the high-upfront cost barriers. Meanwhile, the cooperative business model operated by KUD emerged using grants in the early 1990s to facilitate the coordination of the increased participation of international donors, banks, suppliers and villagers. However, the role of the cooperative business models has decreased due to the economic crisis and the decline in the use of rooftop PV in rural areas.
Lastly, this study shows the importance of shielding strategies in supporting Indonesia’s rooftop PV niche development. Therefore, this thesis recommends that the government should consider and systematically use the shielding concept in formulating regulations on energy transition.

The recent broader interest in reducing GHG emissions while supporting bottom-up initiatives has led to an increased number of Energy Communities. Those are citizen-led energy initiatives, flourishing across all of Europe as a decentralized way of energy production. Moreover, they have been acknowledged as social innovations, too. ECs enhance the spread of other transitions, not only the energy one, e.g., car-sharing services, EVs, and initiatives against energy poverty. However, an energy community, even though is now acknowledged as a legal entity by the European Union and by local governments, is still facing barriers that are hindering its full deployment. According to the academic literature, those barriers concern, for instance, the lack of a factual regulatory framework, absence of intermediaries, and new business models. Moreover, ECs have not been analyzed through the Multi-Level Governance, specifically on how institutional setting and governance can influence the emergence of these initiatives and support their spread. This Multi-Level Governance implies the study of the stakeholders’ interaction among different levels, EU, national and sub-national, until the local level. This multi-level approach was acknowledged in the literature as relevant when examining energy and climate policies, also due to the importance which is recognized in those topics of the local and regional levels. Thus, the use of this framework for further analysis can provide clarity concerning the different responsibilities of local, national, and international actors, as well as intermediaries, and support the identification of additional barriers which has not been highlighted yet. This research, hence, aims to formulate a policy advice on how to strengthen the flourishing process of these citizen-led initiatives by assessing it through the Multi-Level Governance framework.

Amidst the discourse regarding the decentralization of urban energy systems, energy community has emerged as a solution for optimizing the electricity demand and distributed generation. Community energy projects also facilitate collaboration amongst local prosumers. An energy community is a collective of residential electricity consumers (or prosumers) and non-energy small and mediumsized enterprises (SMEs) formulating a social network involved in decentralized energy production. This study is focused on exploring demand response opportunities in community energy projects located in the Netherlands to reduce their dependence on the grid. Existing studies on community energy projects are primarily focused on residential members, and have little to no inclusion of nonresidential community members. However, recent studies regarding demand response in the energy community highlight the benefits of having a mixed configuration of residential and non-residential members. Introducing non-residential community members such as SMEs, offices, and schools with a complementary demand profile can help the community in attaining self-sufficiency through demand response. Formulating energy communities with a mixed configuration (i.e. including residential and non-residential community members) optimizes local electricity generation and consumption thus avoiding congestion in the distribution network....

This research focusses on the decision-making processes of energy regions regarding the energy transition in The Netherlands. The Netherlands has ratified the Climate Agreement in 2019, which thirty energy regions combined need to put in their efforts to reach the target of producing 35 TWh in 2030. One of the key elements in the energy regions is the active involvement of citizens through participation. However, a good relationship between the municipalities in the energy region is not self-evident. The thirty energy regions in the Netherlands have the task to form and lead and provide access to information and other forms of citizen support. Every energy region takes its own approach to involve citizens in their energy transition decision-making. Therefore, it is interesting to study to what extent and in which manners energy regions are able to involve citizens in the RES decision-making and in which ways governments are able to live up to their own participation goals. This embedded case study focusses on energy region Holland Rijnland, with a focus on six municipalities in this region: Katwijk, Leiden, Lisse, Zoeterwoude, Alphen aan den Rijn and Nieuwkoop.

Taken the challenges and research objectives from previous paragraphs into consideration, the following main research question can be formed:
“In which ways is citizen participation present, organized and influencing the initiation, design and implementation phases of the energy transition in the energy region Holland Rijnland?”

Climate change and ever-increasing energy consumption have become a pertinent topic of discussion around the world. There is an urgent need to lower the carbon footprint to meet the requirements of the Paris agreement. The government of India has introduced various policies such as Bachat Lamp Yojana and UJALA to push for energy-efficient technologies. The UJALA policy has been deemed quite successful in this regard meeting its target and resulting in a market creation of the LED technology. Being centrally implemented, the UJALA policy has been implemented with the limited role of state authorities. However, a difference in policy penetration at state levels is observed. Also, the concurrent nature of the energy sector in India deems it important to understand the energy-efficiency efforts of Indian states that contribute to better penetration of energy-efficiency policies like UJALA. This is done via an in-depth analysis of UJALA policy implementation with respect to its impact and the role of the stakeholders involved in the study. This study was utilized to determine the causal conditions that impact the penetration of UJALA policy at sub-national levels in India consisting of policy mix characteristics and exogenous factors. The dataset of these factors was analyzed using fsQCA methodology to derive the configurational combinations of the causal factors that result in higher uptake of LED bulbs in the states. A total of five solution pathways were derived from the research and were presented as results of this research.

Smart City has become one of the most popular topics in recent years due to the emergence of innovative digital technologies. Start-ups have been active in an innovation system defined as Smart City Entrepreneurial Ecosystem (SCEE) in this study, where stakeholders in the Smart City industry are involved and interact with each other, including start-ups, government, industry players, knowledge institutions, citizens, etc. It is observed that start-ups have encountered the “valley of death” problem in their early development stage with limited commercial resources such as funding, unstable customers, brandings, etc. Hence, it is imperative to research the SCEE and figure out how to help start-ups address these problems by strengthening favourable interactions with other actors in the ecosystem. Since little research has been done on the development and analysis of SCEE, this study aims to develop a theoretical framework of SCEE with the systematic literature review and apply it to analyse the case of Brainport Smart District (BSD) by using Social Network Analysis. The developed theoretical framework consists of sixteen groups of actors under four main categories (i.e., government, academia, industry, and society) and ten types of interactions. As for the social network results, the social network of SCEE is relatively condensed; its diameter is 3, the average clustering coefficient is 0.622, and the average path length is 1.697. Start-ups/SMEs, the local management team of BSD, users & consumers, and software & hardware infrastructure providers are the key players with high values in terms of degree centrality, betweenness centrality, closeness centrality, and eigenvector centrality. When it comes to interactions, most interactions happened between start-ups and actors in the government and industry. And there is also a self-loop in the social network of the SCEE in BSD, which means that start-ups are interacting with other start-ups in the ecosystem. Identifying key actors will be helpful for policymakers or other actors to make strategic decisions to improve the SCEE and create a better environment for start-ups to thrive and grow. The analysis of interactions provides guidance on how to improve the current interactions between start-ups and other actors and points out what interactions are lacking in the ecosystem. This study not only fills in the knowledge gap in the development and analysis of SCEE and benefits scholars interested in this field but also can be adopted by policymakers and practitioners to improve the whole ecosystem and stimulate entrepreneurship and innovation in smart cities.

On December 12, 2015, at the 21st session of the Conference of the Parties, 195 countries adopted the Paris Agreement (PA) to address climate change and its negative impacts, with the goal of limiting human-caused climate change to slightly less than 2°C, preferably 1.5°C, from pre-industrial levels (United Nations, 2015). From that point on, these countries were expected to share their own mitigation and adaptation plans, which are known as their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). Parties were asked to resubmit the next round of NDCs by 2020, and every five years thereafter (United Nations Climate Change, 2021). The new NDCs should go beyond the commitments made in the previous cycle and reflect the "highest possible ambition" (UNFCCC, 2015). However, there are significant differences in the level of ambition between countries' NDCs (Tobin, 2017), leaving room to reflect on why some countries have included more ambitious mitigation targets in their pledge compared to others. A literature review revealed two gaps, whereby further research on NDC ambition should focus on comparing countries at the global level (first gap), while considering combinations of influencing national factors (second gap). There is a multitude of national factors that influence NDC ambition. Hall's (1997) "Ideas, Interests and Institutions framework", serves as a theoretical checklist in policy making (Walt et al., 2008), and is used to organize the variables. Based on recommendations from previous research (van Coppenolle, 2002; Lamb & Minx, 2020), a fourth " societal" category was added to the framework. The main research question is therefore: How can national conditions (ideas, interests, institutional or societal) explain the presence or absence of ambition in a country's Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement? The aim of this study was to explore what combination of national conditions influence the ambition of NDCs submitted to the PA and therewith, being able to provide recommendations for national policymakers, decision-makers and more specifically the governing bodies of the Conference of the Parties (COP), who are the decision-makers of the UNFCCC, seeking to understand collective progress. Firstly, to identify the most relevant national conditions that affect NDC ambition, a desk study was performed. This led to the identification of six national conditions in total. The national conditions selected and analyzed in this research were corruption, democracy, individualism, dependency on natural resources, vulnerability to climate change and a country’s wealth. In this report, an NDC was considered ambitious if the pledges were consistent with a fair share effort to hold warming below 2°C. In contrast, an NDC was considered unambitious if the commitment was inconsistent with a fair share effort to hold warming below 2°C. A fair share effort is based on what a country its total contribution would need to be to implement the PA. In total, the ambitiousness of NDCs of 32 countries and the European Union have been compared, which together account for 80 percent of global emissions (CAT, 2021). As a main method, it was decided to apply a fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA). fsQCA is a configurational approach, which considers the possibility that NDC ambition is the outcome of a combination of factors as opposed to the sum of net effects (Ragin & Fiss, 2008). This method is selected as a main method over other statistical approaches, such as regression analysis, because NDC ambition is a complex issue for which it is assumed that the conditions do not act independently of each other. However, to check whether this assumption is correct, and to see whether a statistical approach might give additional insights, a series of bivariate correlation analyses have been performed as well. In addition, two semi-structured interviews were conducted to verify that the results were valid. The two interviewees have been selected and approached based on their expertise on subjects related to the comparison of national climate commitments and their expertise on which factors explain their success and the lack thereof. The results of the fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis and the correlation analysis have been combined and provided insights into why certain countries submit ambitious NDCs, and why other countries submit non-ambitious NDCs. In total one configuration is obtained that is sufficient in explaining the submission of ambitious NDCs, and four configurations are obtained that is sufficient in explaining the submission of non-ambitious NDCs. With fsQCA, a configuration is a set/combination of conditions that explains a certain outcome. It is found that the combination of not being dependent on natural resources and being vulnerable to climate change is sufficient to explain the submission of ambitious NDCs. When such a country also has a low gross national income (GNI) and is corrupt, there is an even greater likelihood that the submitted NDC is ambitious. Regarding the submission of non-ambitious NDCs, it is found that being dependent on natural resources and/or not being vulnerable to climate change is sufficient to explain the submission of non-ambitious NDCs. When a country presents either one of these two factors, it is already adequate to submit an unambitious NDC. Besides these (core) conditions, the chance of submitting an unambitious NDC is even greater when the society of a country is rather collectivistic, meaning people easily sacrifice individual benefit for the success of a group. It was more difficult to draw general conclusions regarding the effect of GNI or corruption. The fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis showed that the obtained configurations are sufficient, but not necessary to occur. In general, this means that knowing the configuration to be true, is adequate grounds to conclude that the outcome (NDC ambition) is true; However, knowing that the configuration is not to be true does not necessarily mean that the outcome (NDC ambition) is not true. This highlights the need for good governance, monitoring and decision-making processes. Additionally, in 2023, the global stock take will take place, in which the collective progress made towards achieving the long-term goals of the Paris Agreement will be assessed. The aim of the global stock take is to become a driver of ambition. Based on the findings of this research, recommendations for policymakers and decision makers have been established. The recommendations are of interest to all climate policy and decision-makers, but perhaps even more so to the governing bodies of the COP, who are the decision makers of the UNFCCC. The first recommendation is based on the finding that five different sufficient configurations have been identified, which shows the need for tailored strategies. For example, specific taxes can be introduced for countries that are highly dependent on natural resources, making it less attractive to show little ambition in their NDCs. The second recommendation is to emphasize just transitions principles. This recommendation is based on the finding that GNI plays an ambiguous role, and that countries with ambitious NDCs set unrealistic goals in the hope to receive financial support. Policymakers and decision-makers should focus on achieving an equitable transition, addressing country-specific challenges, and sharing the benefits of achieving PA equitably. This implies a fair distribution of both the expenses and the gains. The third recommendation is the use of iterative risk management. This recommendation is based on the finding that being vulnerable to climate change is a prerequisite for submitting ambitious NDCs. It is likely that more countries will become vulnerable to the climate as global surface temperatures rise. Iterative risk management is a framework for making decisions in such complex contexts that are marked by large potential impacts, long timeframes, and multiple climatic and non-climatic influences that change over time. Evaluating a wide range of potential impacts is critical to understand when submitting NDCs.

The Dutch transition towards carbon-neutral cities is in full swing and the share of local solar and wind energy is growing rapidly, as well as the electrification of heating, cooling and mobility. Amsterdam is getting the energy transition started and is a forerunner when it comes to developments within the smart energy domain. As a result, multiple smart energy projects are carried out and will be carried out in Amsterdam in order to make Amsterdam a smart energy city. However, it is still unclear in what way these technological developments influence local communities and businesses and how we make sure vulnerable groups are not pushed out, isolated, and marginalized from important urban services, amenities, commercial flows en jobs. This brings us to the concept of inclusion and the need to build inclusive cities. Inclusion exists in many forms but in the smart energy domain mainly ensuring equal rights and equal participation of all citizens including the most vulnerable groups, remains a challenge. Moreover, enabling the disadvantaged and typically low-income people to share in rising prosperity as a result of technology development and eliminating inequities by providing information and financial support, is often not a main concern in smart energy projects which results in smart energy cities being not inclusive. Therefore, the main research question in this thesis is as follows: "How can inclusion be achieved within the smart energy domain of the city of Amsterdam in order become an inclusive smart energy city?". This thesis consists of a theoretical chapter in which a theoretical framework is used that aims at mapping the pillars of an inclusive smart energy city. This framework is used in the empirical part of the thesis in order to found out to what extent inclusion is present within smart energy projects in Amsterdam and how inclusion can be achieved. This empirical part of the thesis consists of an embedded case study that involves two smart energy projects in Amsterdam that are chosen as sub-units of analysis. The first sub-unit of analysis is the Local Inclusive Future Energy (LIFE) project and the second sub-unit of analysis is the Lighthouse City Amsterdam Project. Data is collected through documents and interviews. The interviews are conducted as part of qualitative research and analysed using ATLAS.ti. The results of the case study showed that despite the fact that participation and inclusion are often part of smart energy project plans, effectively achieving it remains a challenge. Challenges related to inclusion identified in this research are the gap between technology and society, limitations as a result of regulations, the rise of inequality, and the existence of different perspectives. Nevertheless, these challenges can be faced by using the theoretical framework as a guideline and in this way meet the objectives of an inclusive smart energy city.