Solar farm installers generally struggle with the allocation of irradiance sensors throughout the plant area, which are essential for monitoring purposes. Despite the existence of the International Electrotechnical Commission guidelines for photovoltaic (PV) plant monitoring, no specific guidance is provided when it comes to allocating sensors. This can be especially problematic for solar farms in hilly terrain. In this work, a software tool is built to allocate horizontal and in-plane irradiance sensors. Additionally, advice on the optimum number of sensors and the prevented error is provided based on the layout of the farm. The methodology consists of calculating the irradiance at every point of the solar farm area and finding the one closest to the average. This average is computed differently depending on the sensor type and monitoring purpose. A modification of the BRL irradiance decomposition model is also proposed to reduce the bias of the original model. The software has been applied to two case studies of existing solar farms in hilly areas in Greece and Germany, showing its applicability for real case scenarios in different climates and geological landscapes. The runtime of the software tool is mainly a function of solar farm size and the land morphology of its location. This methodology has been only developed for monofacial fixed-tilted PV farms.

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Photovoltaic modules are typically not optimized for conditions of partial shading. One proposed approach to improve their shade tolerance is to implement maximum power point tracking on different strings of cells within the modules. However, this approach increases the demand for sub-module power converters, which poses a challenge. To address this, researchers have suggested integrating power electronic components directly into the module laminate, or even within the solar cells themselves. Despite these advancements, limited research has focused on integrating the most bulky component: the inductor. This study investigates through simulations whether planar air-core inductors can yield the required properties to support sub-module power conversion. The simulated inductors have an area that is as large as an industrial crystalline silicon solar cell. First, it is shown how the interplay between the different design parameters, such as track spacing, track width, number of turns, and middle gap size, plays an important role in the inductor properties at high frequency. The coil geometries that are simulated yield inductance values between 0.3 μH and 3.2 μH. Subsequently, the feasibility of implementing these inductors into an exemplary DC–DC boost converter is evaluated. To adequately reduce the ripple current, a significant switching frequency of at least several hundred kHz is required. Additionally, at 500 kHz, an inductor thickness of around 0.5 mm is necessary to keep the ohmic losses in the inductor below 2% of the total generated power in standard test conditions. While demonstrating feasible combinations, these findings also present significant challenges.@en

The impedance of solar cells can be leveraged for a variety of innovative applications. However, for the continued advancement of such applications, it is crucial to understand how the impedance varies during practical operation. This work characterizes the impedance of modern crystalline silicon solar cells across different bias voltages and under varying illumination and temperature conditions. It is found that for a given bias voltage, variations in temperature have a notably stronger impact on PN junction impedance than changes in irradiance. However, during maximum power point (MPP) tracking, variations in irradiance have a larger influence on the PN junction impedance than temperature variations. This is related to the shifting operating voltage during operation. Furthermore, it is shown that the capacitance during practical operation can strongly vary for different solar cells. For instance, the areal MPP capacitance values of the two cells tested in this study at 0.1 sun irradiance and a temperature of 30 °C were 0.283 μF/cm2 and 20.2 μF/cm2, a 71-fold difference. Conversely, the range of the MPP diffusion resistance was found to be highly similar for different cells. The results of this study enhance the understanding of solar-cell impedance and have a broad applicability.@en

Bifacial perovskite/silicon solar cells can combine the advantages of tandem technology (high efficiencies) and bifacial modules (additional received irradiance from the rear) to increase the energy yield of photovoltaic (PV) systems further. In literature, it has already been shown that for two-terminal tandems this would require a lower bandgap energy (E_g) for the perovskite cell, as the rear irradiance increases the current in the bottom cell creating a current mismatch, if this is not considered during optimization. This work expands on bifacial two-terminal tandem optimization by considering aspects not included before. Besides the E_g, the thickness (d) of the perovskite is also optimized, as this also affects the current matching. Additionally, this work studies the trends in different energy losses of the PV module to better understand what affects the optimal perovskite cell. Our simulations show that the optimal E_g is 1.61–1.65 eV and the optimal d is 650–750 nm, which agrees with the observations in literature. The optimal E_g and d are mostly a trade-off between mismatch and thermalization losses, meaning that the mismatch losses should not be fully minimized. Additionally, the irradiance from the rear side is converted less efficiently than the front side irradiance due to larger thermalization and reflection losses. Therefore, the energy yield of bifacial tandem modules, compared to monofacial tandem ones, only increases for large ground albedo. Finally, our results show that the bifacial tandems have over a 25% gain in energy yield compared to bifacial single junction modules and up to 5% gain compared to monofacial tandem modules.

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Photovoltaic (PV) to virtual bus parallel differential power processing (PDPP) architecture can mitigate mismatch losses among PV strings. This article presents a comprehensive dynamic analysis by deriving a small-signal model of the PDPP architecture based on its state space model. Subsequently, the corresponding transfer functions and frequency response are obtained, offering valuable insights into the dynamic behavior of the architecture. To validate the accuracy of the derived model, the frequency response has also been achieved by observed data from both PLECS simulation and experiment through system identification. Besides, this article discusses the design considerations of the discrete controllers' parameters for both virtual and intermediate bus voltages and studies the stability of the architecture. Experimental measurements confirm the ability of the central controller to stabilize the virtual bus voltage to the desired level within 0.6 seconds, while the intermediate bus voltages settle within 15 ms, enabling proper maximum power point tracking of each PV string.

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Polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si) carrier-selective passivating contacts (CSPCs), featuring high photoconversion efficiency (PCE) and cost-effectiveness, have emerged as a promising approach for high-efficiency crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells. To minimize parasitic absorption losses induced by doped poly-Si window layers, wide bandgap oxygen-alloyed poly-Si (poly-SiO_x) layers are developed. However, challenges persist in achieving excellent surface passivation for boron-doped poly-SiO_x contact stacks, likely caused by boron diffusion during annealing and the reduced doping concentration resulting from lower crystallinity as oxygen content increases. In this study, we investigate the impact on the passivating contact structure and solar cell performance of a 10-nm thick intrinsic hydrogenated amorphous silicon buffer layer with varying oxygen content (a-Si (O_x):H) deposited by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), and placed between the tunneling silicon oxide (SiO_x) and the poly-SiO_x (p⁺). After the hydrogenation step, we obtain both high passivation quality with implied open circuit voltage (iV_oc) of 728.3 mV and low contact resistivity (ρ_c) of 59.18 mΩ cm² on polished surface for oxygen-free a-Si:H buffer layer. These improvements can be attributed to the appropriate thickness of the tunnel oxide and confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images, to higher crystallinity of the buffer layer, which facilitates more efficient doping in the buffer layer. This is evidenced by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) results. At the device level, a front-side textured, rear-side flat, rear junction poly-SiO_x/poly-SiO_x solar cell on n-type c-Si wafer, an efficiency improvement can be observed from 3.55 % without a PECVD buffer layer to 18.9 % with an oxygen-free a-Si:H PECVD buffer layer. The impact of the buffer layer crystallinity on cell performance is further demonstrated by deploying a 10-nm thick LPCVD buffer layer, which facilitates an efficiency of 21.15 % for the same device structure.

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A thorough understanding of the small-signal response of solar cells can reveal intrinsic device characteristics and pave the way for innovations. This study investigates the impedance of crystalline silicon PN junction devices using TCAD simulations, focusing on the impact of frequency, bias voltage, and the presence of a low–high (LH) junction. It is shown that the PN junction exhibits the behavior of a parallel resistor–capacitor circuit (RC-loop) with fixed element values at low frequencies, but undergoes relaxation in both resistance R_j and capacitance C_j as frequency increases. Moreover, it is revealed that the addition of a LH junction impacts the impedance by altering R_j, C_j, and the series resistance R_s. Finally, while various publications on solar-cell impedance model the LH junction using an RC-loop, the findings in this study indicate that such a model does not accurately represent the underlying physics. Instead, this approach is likely compensating for the frequency-dependent behavior of R_j and C_j.

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Throughout the development of silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar cells, the transparent conductive oxide has been regarded as an essential component of their front electrode, facilitating lateral charge transport of photogenerated carriers toward the front metal grid fingers. In rear junction (RJ)-SHJ solar cells, the (n)c-Si bulk is known to support the lateral electron transport at maximum power point injection level, provided that the contact resistance of the front contact stack is sufficiently low. This enables experimental RJ-SHJ solar cell architectures featuring a localized front carrier-selective passivating contact exclusively covering the area contacted by the metal grid. Herein, a top-down approach to the synthesis of this type of architecture is studied and its optical and electrical performance applied to different (n)-type contacts are investigated. Additionally, the potential of the localized contact architecture through Cu-plated RJ-SHJ solar cells is demonstrated. These solar cell demonstrators feature high short-circuit current density of 40.5 mA cm⁻², without significantly compromising their open-circuit voltage or fill factor, enabling efficiencies well above 23%, a 2%_abs improvement compared to their state before localization of the front contact.

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Positive Energy Districts (PEDs) are integral to achieving sustainable urban development by enhancing energy self-sufficiency and reducing carbon emissions. This paper explores energy balance calculations in four diverse case study districts within different climatic conditions—Fiat Village in Settimo Torinese (Italy), Großschönau (Austria), Beursplain in Amsterdam (Netherlands), and Lunca Pomostului in Reşiţa (Romania)—as part of the SIMPLY Positive project. Each district faces unique challenges, such as outdated infrastructure or heritage protection, which we address through tailored strategies including building renovations and the integration of renewable energy systems. Additionally, we employ advanced simulation methodologies to assess energy performance. Simulation results highlight the significance of innovative technologies like photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) systems, application of demand-side actions, and flexible grid usage. Furthermore, mobility assessments and resident-driven initiatives demonstrate the critical role of community engagement in reducing carbon footprints. This study underscores the adaptability of PED frameworks across varied urban contexts and provides actionable insights for scaling similar strategies globally, supporting net-zero energy targets.@en

The surge in global solar photovoltaic (PV) deployment as a measure to combat climate change is undeniable. However, this growth comes with its own set of challenges, particularly concerning the materials required for silicon-based PV modules. In this study, we quantify future material demand for silicon-based PV modules, considering technological advancements in PV module efficiency and material intensity. The annual material demand is projected to increase significantly for indium (38–286 times), silver (4–27 times), and other materials (2–20 times) over the period from 2022 to 2050, depending on PV deployment scenarios. Indium and silver demand are notably influenced by PV technology choice. Cumulative indium demand during 2022–2050 could range from 0 kt (for 100 % passivated emitter and rear contact or tunnel oxide passivated contact PV) to 209 kt (for 100 % perovskite-silicon four-terminal tandem PV). Cumulative silver demand during the same period could vary from 144 kt (for 100 % passivated emitter and rear contact PV) to 1121 kt (for 100 % silicon heterojunction PV). One promising approach to mitigate the increasing demand for primary materials is closed-loop recycling. By implementing efficient PV collection and recycling processes, cumulative primary material demand could be reduced by 10 % to 30 % between 2022 and 2050.

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Due to the unique microstructure of hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon oxide (nc-SiO_x:H), the optoelectronic properties of this material can be tuned over a wide range, which makes it adaptable to different solar cell applications. In this work, the authors review the material properties of nc-SiO_x:H and the versatility of its applications in different types of solar cells. The review starts by introducing the growth principle of doped nc-SiO_x:H layers, the effect of oxygen content on the material properties, and the relationship between optoelectronic properties and its microstructure. A theoretical analysis of charge carrier transport mechanisms in silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar cells with wide band gap layers is then presented. Afterwards, the authors focus on the recent developments in the implementation of nc-SiO_x:H and hydrogenated amorphous silicon oxide (a-SiO_x:H) films for SHJ, passivating contacts, and perovskite/silicon tandem devices.

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Nowadays, an increasing share of photovoltaic (PV) systems makes use of module- or submodule-level power electronics (PE). Furthermore, PE is used in stand-alone devices powered by PV-storage solutions. One way to facilitate further implementation of PE in PV applications is to integrate PE components into crystalline silicon PV cells. Herein, the COSMOS device is introduced, denoting COmbined Solar cell and metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). Specifically, the combined manufacturing of lateral power MOSFETs and interdigitated back contact solar cells with tunnel-oxide passivated contacts (TOPCon) on a single wafer is reported. Many steps of the proposed process flow are used for the fabrication of both devices, enabling cost-effective integration of the MOSFET. Both n-type solar cells with integrated p-channel MOSFETs (PMOS) and p-type solar cells with integrated n-channel MOSFETs (NMOS) are successfully manufactured. NMOS devices perform better in achieving low on-resistance, while PMOS devices exhibit lower leakage currents. Furthermore, the study reveals integration challenges where off-state leakage currents of the MOSFET can increase due to illumination and specific configurations of monolithic interconnections between the MOSFET and the solar cell. Nevertheless, for both n-type and p-type solar cells, efficiencies exceeding 20% are achieved, highlighting the potential of the proposed process for COSMOS devices.

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Lead halide perovskites are a promising class of materials for solar cell applications. The perovskite bandgap depends on the material composition and is highly tunable. Opto-electrical device modelling is commonly used to find the optimum perovskite bandgap that maximizes device efficiency or energy yield, either in single junction or multi-junction configuration. The first step in this calculation is the optical modelling of the spectral absorptance. This requires as input the perovskite's complex refractive index N as a function of wavelength λ. The complex refractive index consists of real part n(λ) and imaginary part k(λ). For the most commonly used perovskites, n and k curves are available from spectroscopic ellipsometry measurements, but usually only for a few discrete bandgap energies. For solar cell optimization, these curves are required for a continuous range of bandgap energies. We introduce new methods for generating the n and k curves for an arbitrary bandgap, based on interpolating measured complex refractive index data. First, different dispersion models (Cody-Lorentz, Ullrich-Lorentz and Forouhi-Bloomer) are used to fit the measured data. Then, a linear regression is applied to the fit parameters with respect to the bandgap energy. From the interpolated parameters, the refractive index curve of perovskite with any desired bandgap energy is finally reconstructed. To validate our method, we compare our results with methods from literature and then use it to simulate the absorptance of a single junction perovskite and a perovskite/silicon tandem cell. This shows that our method based on the Forouhi-Bloomer model is more accurate than existing methods in predicting the complex refractive index of perovskite for arbitrary bandgaps.

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Clouds moving in front or away from the sun are the leading cause of irradiance variability. These variations have a repercussion on the electricity production of photovoltaic systems. Predicting such changes is essential for proper control of these systems and for maintaining grid stability. Images from the sky have proven to help with short-term solar irradiance forecasting, especially when combined with artificial intelligence. Nevertheless, these models tend to smooth the irradiance fluctuations. We propose a forecasting model to predict the clear-sky index in a forecast horizon of 20 min with a 1-minute resolution. Our model, based on a classifier to determine the sky conditions and, on an optical flow, applies an artificial intelligence model explicitly trained on each class of sky conditions. This strategy has an equivalent performance to an unclassified model and a forecast skill between 5 and 20% with respect to the smart persistence model for most classes of sky conditions while requiring considerably less training data. Although our model reduces the overall predicting error, it still has difficulties predicting irradiance changes and mainly overcast days. Our classifying strategy can be applied to other models targeting different objectives to predict sudden changes in either irradiance or power related to photovoltaic systems.

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Reducing indium consumption in transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layers is crucial for mass production of silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar cells. In this contribution, optical simulation-assisted design and optimization of SHJ solar cells featuring MoO_x hole collectors with ultra-thin TCO layers is performed. Firstly, bifacial SHJ solar cells with MoO_x as the hole transport layer (HTL) and three types of n-contact as electron transport layer (ETL) are fabricated with 50 nm thick ITO on both sides. It is found that bilayer (nc-Si:H/a-Si:H) and trilayer (nc-SiO_x:H/nc-Si:H/a-Si:H) as n-contacts performed electronically and optically better than monolayer (a-Si:H) in bifacial SHJ cells, respectively. Then, as suggested by optical simulations, the same stack of tungsten-doped indium oxide (IWO) and optimized MgF₂ layers are applied on both sides of front/back-contacted SHJ solar cells. Devices endowed with 10 nm thick IWO and bilayer n-contact exhibit a certified efficiency of 21.66% and 20.66% when measured from MoO_x and n-contact side, respectively. Specifically, when illuminating from the MoO_x side, the short-circuit current density and the fill factor remain well above 40 mA cm⁻² and 77%, respectively. Compared to standard front/rear TCO thicknesses (75 nm/150 nm) deployed in monofacial SHJ solar cells, this represents over 90% TCO reduction. As for bifacial cells featuring 50 nm thick IWO layers, a champion device with a bilayer n-contact as ETL is obtained, which exhibits certified conversion efficiency of 23.25% and 22.75% when characterized from the MoO_x side and the n-layer side, respectively, with a bifaciality factor of 0.98. In general, by utilizing a n-type bilayer stack, bifaciality factor is above 0.96 and it can be further enhanced up to 0.99 by switching to a n-type trilayer stack. Again, compared to the aforementioned standard front/rear TCO thicknesses, this translates to a TCO reduction of more than 67%.

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Changing outdoor conditions, i.e. higher outdoor air temperature, higher occurrence of heatwaves and outdoor air pollution, increase the risk of overheating and accumulation of air pollution in homes. Previous studies showed that high indoor air temperatures and air pollution affect occupants’ health, resulting in cardio-vascular and respiratory diseases, eyes and skin symptoms, and mortality. Measures to increase energy efficiency of renovated and newly built homes can further increase health risks during extreme weather events and can increase the outdoor temperature. Moreover, the rise of the outdoor air temperature in Europe is higher than the global average.

Therefore, understanding of the extent of current overheating and indoor air pollution and of the contributing factors is necessary to identify the required adaptability of dwellings in Europe to changing outdoor conditions. The objective of this study is to systematically review consequences of changing outdoor conditions, building characteristics, and technology on the indoor environment and occupants’ health in homes in European countries during summer.

This review focuses on empirical studies, as these enable to capture real world interactions of occupants and buildings in relation to outdoor conditions. Varying outdoor conditions, building-, and occupant-related aspects in different European climate zones are discussed. Main findings are that overheating already occurs in normal summers in temperate and northern European countries, while variation in overheating is related to occupants’ adaptative behaviour and building-related aspects. Based on the review, it is suggested to investigate adaptability of dwellings to changing occupants’ needs, new energy efficient technologies, and changing outdoor conditions.@en

Solar photovoltaic (PV) energy is variable. The output power can change considerably in a matter of minutes, imposing challenges on the control of systems connected downstream. The power from these systems can be smoothed using electric storage, potentially increasing the system cost. An alternative is to deliberately curtail the power before it starts to change. This strategy relies on ultra-short-term forecasting to determine the curtailment point. Unfortunately, forecasting is prone to errors and high uncertainty even in the very short-term, leading to control errors. We propose an active power curtailment control strategy for a stand-alone solar photovoltaic system powering an electrolyzer. Our work's novelty relies on the controller's ability to deal with large forecasting errors and high uncertainty, combining artificial intelligence for predicting the power ramps and fuzzy logic to account for imperfect prediction. We validated our approach using a hardware emulator of the photovoltaic system, power converter and electrolyzer. Under clear sky conditions, the curtailment results in unnecessary energy loss, while under variable irradiance, the controller successfully smooths the power ramps within 10% of the PV system's nominal power. Although our approach was designed for a stand-alone system, its concept can be directly applied to grid-connected systems as well.

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The ongoing development of photovoltaics into terawatt scale poses a number of challenges where the optics and photonics communities can contribute. An international consortium recently compiled a roadmap that elaborates on these challenges.

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Visible light communication (VLC) is a promising complement considering the rising radio frequency spectrum congestion. However, photodiode receivers degrade rapidly under high ambient light (>200 W/m²). Photovoltaic (PV) cells, designed for outdoor applications, offer an effective alternative. This work studies the fundamental relationship between various LEDs and seven commercial crystalline silicon (c-Si) PV cell architectures to assess simultaneous energy harvesting and communication. The results reveal that increased PV output inversely affects bandwidth. The impact of PV cell architecture on bandwidth is mainly due to bulk doping concentration and metallization design. Higher doping reduces bandwidth at short circuit but increases it at higher operating voltages. At the transmitter end, higher irradiance levels enhance communication, but this effect is minimal at the PV maximum power point (MPP). Additionally, LED color has a negligible impact on PV cell bandwidth. The highest bandwidth is 215 kHz for Al-BSF(5”) under short-circuit, while the lowest is 0.1 kHz for SHJ at MPP. Among the tested c-Si PV architectures, Al-BSF cells exhibit the best communication stability – from 100 kHz to 10 kHz, while SHJ shows the worst – from 100 kHz to 0.1 kHz. TOPCon demonstrates the optimal balance between energy harvesting and communication for Pareto optimality.

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Transition metal oxide (TMO) thin films exhibit large bandgap and hold great potential for enhancing the performance of silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar cells by increasing the short-circuit current density significantly. On the other hand, achieving precise control over the electrical properties of TMO layers is crucial for optimizing their function as efficient carrier-selective layer. This study demonstrates a general and feasible approach for manipulating the quality of several TMO films, aimed at enhancing their applicability in silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar cells. The core of our method involves precise engineering of the interface between the TMO film and the underlying hydrogenated intrinsic amorphous silicon passivation layer by managing the reaction of the TMO on the surface. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy spectra demonstrate that our methods can modify the oxygen content in TMO films, thereby adjusting their electronic properties. By applying this method, we have successfully fabricated WO_x-based SHJ solar cells with 23.30 % conversion efficiency and V₂O_x-based SHJ solar cells with 22.04 % conversion efficiency, while keeping n-type silicon-based electron-transport layer at the rear side. This research paves the way for extending such interface engineering methods to other TMO materials used as hole-transport layers in SHJ solar cells.

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