Steel production accounts for approximately 8% of all global CO2 emissions, with the primary steelmaking route using iron ores accounting for about 80% of those emissions, mainly due to the use of fossil-based reductants and fuel. Hydrogen-based reduction of iron oxide is an alternative for primary synthesis. However, to counteract global warming, decarbonization of the steel sector must proceed much faster than the ongoing transition kinetics in primary steelmaking. Insufficient supply of green hydrogen is a particular bottleneck. Realizing a higher fraction of secondary steelmaking thus is gaining momentum as a sustainable alternative to primary production. Steel production from scrap is well established for long products (rails, bars, wire), but there are two main challenges. First, there is not sufficient scrap available to satisfy market needs. Today, only one-third of global steel demand can be met by secondary metallurgy using scrap since many steel products have a lifetime of several decades. However, scrap availability will increase to about two-thirds of total demand by 2050 such that this sector will grow massively in the next decades. Second, scrap is often too contaminated to produce high-performance sheet steels. This is a serious obstacle because advanced products demand explicit low-tolerance specifications for safety-critical and high-strength steels, such as for electric vehicles, energy conversion and grids, high-speed trains, sustainable buildings, and infrastructure. Therefore, we review the metallurgical and microstructural challenges and opportunities for producing high-performance sheet steels via secondary synthesis. Focus is placed on the thermodynamic, kinetic, chemical, and microstructural fundamentals as well as the effects of scrap-related impurities on steel properties.@en

Steels with medium manganese (Mn) content (3∼12 wt-%) have emerged as a new alloy class and received considerable attention during the last decade. The microstructure and mechanical response of such alloys show significant differences from those of established steel grades, especially pertaining to the microstructural variety that can be tuned and the associated micromechanisms activated during deformation. The interplay and tuning opportunities between composition and the many microstructural features allow to trigger almost all known strengthening and strain-hardening mechanisms, enabling excellent strength-ductility synergy, at relatively lean alloy content. Previous investigations have revealed a high degree of microstructure and deformation complexity in such steels, but the underlying mechanisms are not adequately discussed and acknowledged. This encourages us to critically review and discuss these materials, focusing on the progress in fundamental research, with the aim to obtain better understanding and enable further progress in this field. The review addresses the main phase transformation phenomena in these steels and their mechanical behaviour, covering the whole inelastic deformation regime including yielding, strain hardening, plastic instability and damage. Based on these insights, the relationships between processing, microstructure and mechanical properties are critically assessed and rationalized. Open questions and challenges with respect to both, fundamental studies and industrial production are also identified and discussed to guide future research efforts.

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Iron making is the biggest single cause of global warming. The reduction of iron ores with carbon generates about 7% of the global carbon dioxide emissions to produce ≈1.85 billion tons of steel per year. This dramatic scenario fuels efforts to re-invent this sector by using renewable and carbon-free reductants and electricity. Here, the authors show how to make sustainable steel by reducing solid iron oxides with hydrogen released from ammonia. Ammonia is an annually 180 million ton traded chemical energy carrier, with established transcontinental logistics and low liquefaction costs. It can be synthesized with green hydrogen and release hydrogen again through the reduction reaction. This advantage connects it with green iron making, for replacing fossil reductants. the authors show that ammonia-based reduction of iron oxide proceeds through an autocatalytic reaction, is kinetically as effective as hydrogen-based direct reduction, yields the same metallization, and can be industrially realized with existing technologies. The produced iron/iron nitride mixture can be subsequently melted in an electric arc furnace (or co-charged into a converter) to adjust the chemical composition to the target steel grades. A novel approach is thus presented to deploying intermittent renewable energy, mediated by green ammonia, for a disruptive technology transition toward sustainable iron making.

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Fossil-free ironmaking is indispensable for reducing massive anthropogenic CO ₂ emissions in the steel industry. Hydrogen-based direct reduction (HyDR) is among the most attractive solutions for green ironmaking, with high technology readiness. The underlying mechanisms governing this process are characterized by a complex interaction of several chemical (phase transformations), physical (transport), and mechanical (stresses) phenomena. Their interplay leads to rich microstructures, characterized by a hierarchy of defects ranging across several orders of magnitude in length, including vacancies, dislocations, internal interfaces, and free surfaces in the form of cracks and pores. These defects can all act as reaction, nucleation, and diffusion sites, shaping the overall reduction kinetics. A clear understanding of the roles and interactions of these dynamically-evolving nano-/microstructure features is missing. Gaining better insights into these effects could enable improved access to the microstructure-based design of more efficient HyDR methods, with potentially high impact on the urgently needed decarbonization in the steel industry.

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Steel production causes a third of all industrial CO ₂ emissions due to the use of carbon-based substances as reductants for iron ores, making it a key driver of global warming. Therefore, research efforts aim to replace these reductants with sustainably produced hydrogen. Hydrogen-based direct reduction (HyDR) is an attractive processing technology, given that direct reduction (DR) furnaces are routinely operated in the steel industry but with CH ₄ or CO as reductants. Hydrogen diffuses considerably faster through shaft-furnace pellet agglomerates than carbon-based reductants. However, the net reduction kinetics in HyDR remains extremely sluggish for high-quantity steel production, and the hydrogen consumption exceeds the stoichiometrically required amount substantially. Thus, the present study focused on the improved understanding of the influence of spatial gradients, morphology, and internal microstructures of ore pellets on reduction efficiency and metallization during HyDR. For this purpose, commercial DR pellets were investigated using synchrotron high-energy X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy in conjunction with electron backscatter diffraction and chemical probing. Revealing the interplay of different phases with internal interfaces, free surfaces, and associated nucleation and growth mechanisms provides a basis for developing tailored ore pellets that are highly suited for a fast and efficient HyDR.

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In conventional processing, metals go through multiple manufacturing steps including casting, plastic deformation, and heat treatment to achieve the desired property. In additive manufacturing (AM) the same target must be reached in one fabrication process, involving solidification and cyclic remelting. The thermodynamic and kinetic differences between the solid and liquid phases lead to constitutional undercooling, local variations in the solidification interval, and unexpected precipitation of secondary phases. These features may cause many undesired defects, one of which is the so-called hot cracking. The response of the thermodynamic and kinetic nature of these phenomena to high cooling rates provides access to the knowledge-based and tailored design of alloys for AM. Here, we illustrate such an approach by solving the hot cracking problem, using the commercially important IN738LC superalloy as a model material. The same approach could also be applied to adapt other hot-cracking susceptible alloy systems for AM.

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Since its first emergence in 2004, the high-entropy alloy (HEA) concept has aimed at stabilizing single- or dual-phase multi-element solid solutions through high mixing entropy. Here, this strategy is changed and renders such massive solid solutions metastable, to trigger spinodal decomposition for improving the alloys’ magnetic properties. The motivation for starting from a HEA for this approach is to provide the chemical degrees of freedom required to tailor spinodal behavior using multiple components. The key idea is to form Fe-Co enriched regions which have an expanded volume (relative to unconstrained Fe-Co), due to coherency constraints imposed by the surrounding HEA matrix. As demonstrated by theory and experiments, this leads to improved magnetic properties of the decomposed alloy relative to the original solid solution matrix. In a prototype magnetic FeCoNiMnCu HEA, it is shown that the modulated structures, achieved by spinodal decomposition, lead to an increase of the Curie temperature by 48% and a simultaneous increase of magnetization by 70% at ambient temperature as compared to the homogenized single-phase reference alloy. The findings thus open a pathway for the development of advanced functional HEAs.

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This is a viewpoint paper on recent progress in the understanding of the microstructure–property relations of advanced high-strength steels (AHSS). These alloys constitute a class of high-strength, formable steels that are designed mainly as sheet products for the transportation sector. AHSS have often very complex and hierarchical microstructures consisting of ferrite, austenite, bainite, or martensite matrix or of duplex or even multiphase mixtures of these constituents, sometimes enriched with precipitates. This complexity makes it challenging to establish reliable and mechanism-based microstructure–property relationships. A number of excellent studies already exist about the different types of AHSS (such as dual-phase steels, complex phase steels, transformation-induced plasticity steels, twinning-induced plasticity steels, bainitic steels, quenching and partitioning steels, press hardening steels, etc.) and several overviews appeared in which their engineering features related to mechanical properties and forming were discussed. This article reviews recent progress in the understanding of microstructures and alloy design in this field, placing particular attention on the deformation and strain hardening mechanisms of Mn-containing steels that utilize complex dislocation substructures, nanoscale precipitation patterns, deformation-driven transformation, and twinning effects. Recent developments on microalloyed nanoprecipitation hardened and press hardening steels are also reviewed. Besides providing a critical discussion of their microstructures and properties, vital features such as their resistance to hydrogen embrittlement and damage formation are also evaluated. We also present latest progress in advanced characterization and modeling techniques applied to AHSS. Finally, emerging topics such as machine learning, through-process simulation, and additive manufacturing of AHSS are discussed. The aim of this viewpoint is to identify similarities in the deformation and damage mechanisms among these various types of advanced steels and to use these observations for their further development and maturation.

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The combination of different phase constituents to realize a mechanical composite effect for superior strength-ductility synergy has become an important strategy in microstructure design in advanced high-strength steels. Introducing multiple phases in the microstructure essentially produces a large number of phase boundaries. Such hetero-interfaces affect the materials in various aspects such as dislocation activity and damage formation. However, it remains a question whether the characteristics of phase boundaries, such as their chemical decoration states, would also have an impact on the mechanical behavior in multiphase steels. Here we reveal a phase boundary segregation-induced strengthening effect in ultrafine-grained duplex medium-Mn steels. We found that the carbon segregation at ferrite-austenite phase boundaries can be manipulated by adjusting the cooling conditions after intercritical annealing. Such phase boundary segregation in the investigated steels resulted in a yield strength enhancement by 100–120 MPa and simultaneously promoted discontinuous yielding. The sharp carbon segregation at the phase boundaries impeded interfacial dislocation emission, thus increasing the stress required to activate such dislocation nucleation process and initiate plastic deformation. This observation suggests that the enrichment of carbon at the phase boundaries can enhance the energy barrier for dislocation emission, which provides a favorable condition for plastic flow avalanches and thus discontinuous yielding. These findings extend the current understanding of the yielding behavior in medium-Mn steels, and more importantly, shed light on utilizing and manipulating phase boundary segregation to improve the mechanical performance of multiphase metallic materials.

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For decades, grain boundary engineering has proven to be one of the most effective approaches for tailoring the mechanical properties of metallic materials, although there are limits to the fineness and types of microstructures achievable, due to the rapid increase in grain size once being exposed to thermal loads (low thermal stability of crystallographic boundaries). Here, we deploy a unique chemical boundary engineering (CBE) approach, augmenting the variety in available alloy design strategies, which enables us to create a material with an ultrafine hierarchically heterogeneous microstructure even after heating to high temperatures. When applied to plain steels with carbon content of only up to 0.2 weight %, this approach yields ultimate strength levels beyond 2.0 GPa in combination with good ductility (>20%). Although demonstrated here for plain carbon steels, the CBE design approach is, in principle, applicable also to other alloys.

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We combined experimental investigations and theoretical calculations to unveil an abnormal magnetic behavior caused by addition of the nonmagnetic element Cu in face-centered-cubic FeNiCoMn-based high-entropy alloys (HEAs). Upon Cu addition, the probed HEAs show an increase of both Curie temperature and saturation magnetization in as-cast and homogenized states. Specifically, the saturation magnetization of the as-cast HEAs at room temperature increases by 77% and 177% at a Cu content of 11 and 20 at. %, respectively, compared to the as-cast equiatomic FeNiCoMn HEA without Cu. The increase in saturation magnetization of the as-cast HEAs is associated with the formation of an Fe-Co rich phase in the dendritic regions. For the homogenized HEAs, the magnetic state at room temperature transforms from paramagnetism to ferromagnetism after 20 at. % Cu addition. The increase of the saturation magnetization and Curie temperature cannot be adequately explained by the formation of Cu enriched zones according to atom probe tomography analysis. Ab initio calculations suggest Cu plays a pivotal role in the stabilization of a ferromagnetic ordering of Fe, and reveal an increase of the Curie temperature caused by Cu addition which agrees well with the experimental results. The underlying mechanism behind this phenomenon lies in a combined change in unit-cell volume and chemical composition and the related energetic stabilization of the magnetic ordering upon Cu alloying as revealed by theoretical calculations. Thus, the work unveils the mechanisms responsible for the Cu effect on the magnetic properties of FeNiCoMn HEAs, and suggests that nonmagnetic elements are also crucial to tune and improve magnetic properties of HEAs.

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Severe lattice distortion is a core effect in the design of multiprincipal element alloys with the aim to enhance yield strength, a key indicator in structural engineering. Yet, the yield strength values of medium- and high-entropy alloys investigated so far do not substantially exceed those of conventional alloys owing to the insufficient utilization of lattice distortion. Here it is shown that a simple VCoNi equiatomic medium-entropy alloy exhibits a near 1 GPa yield strength and good ductility, outperforming conventional solid-solution alloys. It is demonstrated that a wide fluctuation of the atomic bond distances in such alloys, i.e., severe lattice distortion, improves both yield stress and its sensitivity to grain size. In addition, the dislocation-mediated plasticity effectively enhances the strength–ductility relationship by generating nanosized dislocation substructures due to massive pinning. The results demonstrate that severe lattice distortion is a key property for identifying extra-strong materials for structural engineering applications.

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To facilitate the understanding of Invar effects and design of FeNiCo-base Invar alloys characterized by low thermal expansion coefficient (TEC), we investigated the magnetic and thermal expansion behavior of an equiatomic prototype medium entropy alloy FeNiCo and a non-equiatomic (super Invar)Fe₆₃Ni₃₂Co₅ (at. %)reference alloy by means of experiments and ab initio calculations. Both alloys consist of a single face-centered cubic phase with fully recrystallized microstructure in the homogenized state. Large spontaneous volume magnetostriction is observed in both alloys below their respective Curie temperatures. The Invar effect in the non-equiatomic Fe₆₃Ni₃₂Co₅ alloy is of step-type with nearly zero TEC over a wide temperature range (from room temperature to 120 °C)below its Curie temperature. The equiatomic FeNiCo alloy shows a peak-type Invar effect in a very narrow temperature range (from ∼675 °C to ∼730 °C)with relatively low TECs. The equiatomic FeNiCo alloy shows both higher saturation magnetization and Curie temperature than the non-equiatomic Fe₆₃Ni₃₂Co₅ alloy. The relationships among magnetic behavior, spontaneous volume magnetostriction and Invar effects for a wider array of metallic alloys are discussed mainly based on Masumoto's rule combined with Wohlfarth's itinerant electron theory. An Invar alloy search map is constructed based on the present results and available literature data to visualize the relationships among saturation magnetization, Curie temperature and thermal expansion coefficient for a wide range of Invar alloys. Based on this treasure map a design route for further developments of new Invar alloys by tuning their magnetic properties is discussed.

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Ultrafine austenite-ferrite duplex medium Mn steels often show a discontinuous yielding phenomenon, which is not commonly observed in other composite-like multiphase materials. The underlying dislocation-based mechanisms are not understood. Here we show that medium Mn steels with an austenite matrix (austenite fraction ∼65 vol%) can exhibit pronounced discontinuous yielding. A combination of multiple in situ characterization techniques from macroscopic (a few millimeters) down to nanoscopic scale (below 100 nm) is utilized to investigate this phenomenon. We observe that both austenite and ferrite are plastically deformed before the macroscopic yield point. In this microplastic regime, plastic deformation starts in the austenite phase before ferrite yields. The austenite-ferrite interfaces act as preferable nucleation sites for new partial dislocations in austenite and for full dislocations in ferrite. The large total interface area, caused by the submicron grain size, can provide a high density of dislocation sources and lead to a rapid increase of mobile dislocations, which is believed to be the major reason accounting for discontinuous yielding in such steels. We simultaneously study the Lüders banding behavior and the local deformation-induced martensite forming inside the Lüders bands. We find that grain size and the austenite stability against deformation-driven martensite formation are two important microstructural factors controlling the Lüders band characteristics in terms of the number of band nucleation sites and their propagation velocity. These factors thus govern the early yielding stages of medium Mn steels, due to their crucial influence on mobile dislocation generations and local work hardening.

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