High-performance bioinspired materials have shown rapid development over the last decade. Examples are brick-and-mortar hierarchical structures, which are often achieved via solvent evaporation. Although good properties are claimed, most systems are composed of stacked or intercalated platelets. Exfoliation is a crucial step to give ultimate anisotropic properties, e.g., thermal, mechanical, and barrier properties. We propose a general framework for all the various types of micro-scale structures that should be distinguished for 2D filler nanocomposites. In particular, the exfoliated state is systematically explored by the immobilization of montmorillonite platelets via (gelatin) hydrogelation. Scattering techniques were used to evaluate this strategy at the level of the particle dispersion and the regularity of spatial arrangement. The gelatin/montmorillonite exfoliated nanostructures are fully controlled by the filler volume fraction since the observed gallery d-spacings perfectly fall onto the predicted values. Surprisingly, X-ray analysis also revealed short- and quasi long-range arrangement of the montmorillonite clay at high loading.

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Tailoring the order in hierarchical structures is a key goal of bioinspired nanocomposite design. Recently, nacre-like materials have been developed by solvent evaporation methods that are scalable and attain advanced functionalities. However, understanding the alignment mechanisms of 2D fillers, nanosheets, or platelets remains challenging. This work explores possible pathways for nanocomposite ordering via orientation distribution functions. We demonstrate how the immobilization of 2D materials via (pseudo)network formation is crucial to alignment based on evaporation. We show a modified affine deformation model that describes such evaporative methods. In this, a gel network develops enough yield stress and uniformly deforms as drying proceeds, along with the immobilized particles, causing an in-plane orientation. Herein, we tested the dominance of this approach by using a thermo-reversible gel for rapid montmorillonite (MMT) particle fixation. We researched gelatin/MMT as a model system to investigate the effects of high loadings, orientational order, and aspect ratio. The nacre-like nanocomposites showed a semiconstant order parameter (⟨P₂⟩ ∼ 0.7) over increasing nanofiller content up to 64 vol % filler. This remarkable alignment resulted in continuously improved mechanical and water vapor barrier properties over unusually large filler fractions. Some variations in stiffness and diffusion properties were observed, possibly correlated to the applied drying conditions of the hybrid hydrogels. The affine deformation strategy holds promise for developing next-generation advanced materials with tailored properties even at (very) high filler loadings. Furthermore, a gelling approach offers the advantages of simplicity and versatility in the formulation of the components, which is useful for large-scale fabrication methods.

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Wastewater solids could be an attractive source of secondary raw cellulose, mainly originating from toilet paper. Cellulose can be recovered through sieving of raw wastewater, return sludge, or excess sludge. In particular, a large fraction of cellulose (13–15%) can be found in the excess sludge of the aerobic granular sludge produced by the Nereda® wastewater technology. A cellulose extraction method was developed during this study, allowing the recovery of a pulp with over 86 wt% purity. The wastewater derived cellulose fibres could be an excellent source for production of recovered cellulose nanocrystals (rCNC). Several pre-treatment steps needed in cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) production from wood pulp are already performed in the production of toilet paper. Here, the technical feasibility of such rCNC is studied. As reference materials, microcrystalline cellulose and toilet paper were also used. The rCNC were obtained by acid hydrolysis, with yields of ∼30 wt% (pulp basis). The wastewater-based material was rod-like, with high aspect ratio (10–14), crystallinity (62–68%), and chemical structure similar to commercial CNC. The yield of rCNC per gram of cellulose recovered from the influent was 22%, while for excess sludge cellulose it was less (4%). Bio-nanocomposites of rCNC and alginate were also investigated. At 50 vol% loading of rCNC, there was a 50% relative increase in stiffness (18 GPa) compared to matrix (12 GPa). The characterization of rCNC and positive impact in composite materials confirms a suitable quality of wastewater derived CNC. Ultimately, the nanocellulose is a tangible example that recovery of high-end products from wastewater is possible, in line with a circular economy.

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An increasing amount of industrial chemicals are being released into wastewater collection systems and indigenous microbial communities in treatment plants are not always effective for their removal. In this work, extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) recovered from aerobic granular sludge (AGS) were used as a natural carrier to immobilize a specific microbial strain, Rhodococcus sp. FP1, able to degrade 2-fluorophenol (2-FP). The produced EPS granules exhibited a 2-FP degrading ability of 100% in batch assays, retaining their original activity after up to 2-months storage. Furthermore, EPS granules were added to an AGS reactor intermittently fed with saline wastewater containing 2-FP. Degradation of 2-FP and stoichiometric fluorine release occurred 8 and 35 days after bioaugmentation, respectively. Chemical oxygen demand removal was not significantly impaired by 2-FP or salinity loads. Nutrients removal was impaired by 2-FP load, but after bioaugmentation, the phosphate and ammonium removal efficiency improved from 14 to 46% and from 25 to 42%, respectively. After 2-FP feeding ceased, at low/moderate salinity (0.6–6.0 g L⁻¹ NaCl), ammonium removal was completely restored, and phosphate removal efficiency increased. After bioaugmentation, 11 bacteria isolated from AGS were able to degrade 2-FP, indicating that horizontal gene transfer could have occurred in the reactor. The improvement of bioreactor performance after bioaugmentation with EPS immobilized bacteria and the maintenance of cell viability through storage are the main advantages of the use of this natural microbial carrier for bioaugmentation, which can benefit wastewater treatment processes.

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The promise of crystal composites with direction-specific properties is an attractive prospect for diverse applications; however, synthetic strategies for realizing such composites remain elusive. Here, we demonstrate that anisotropic agarose gel networks can mechanically "mold" calcite crystal growth, yielding anisotropically structured, single-crystal composites. Drying and rehydration of agarose gel films result in the affine deformation of their fibrous networks to yield fiber alignment parallel to the drying plane. Precipitation of calcium carbonate within these anisotropic networks results in the formation of calcite crystal composite disks oriented parallel to the fibers. The morphology of the disks, revealed by nanocomputed tomography imaging, evolves with time and can be described by linear-elastic fracture mechanics theory, which depends on the ratio between the length of the crystal and the elastoadhesive length of the gel. Precipitation of calcite in uniaxially deformed agarose gel cylinders results in the formation of rice-grain-shaped crystals, suggesting the broad applicability of the approach. These results demonstrate how the anisotropy of compliant networks can translate into the desired crystal composite morphologies. This work highlights the important role organic matrices can play in mechanically "molding" biominerals and provides an exciting platform for fabricating crystal composites with direction-specific and emergent functional properties.

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Nereda® aerobic granular sludge plants will be urban biorefineries in near future. The development of Kaumera Nereda® Gum extractions from granular sludge was the first step. Kaumera is a biopolymer that can substitute oil derived polymers. Here we share our experiences in the EU funded Water Mining project. A transportable Kaumera extraction installation is build, additional technologies will be integrated: (I) nitrogen recovery, (II) phosphorus recovery and (III) alkaline fermentation of organic sludge residuals.
Together with industrial and public partners we combine fundamental research (alkaline fermentation and phosphorus recovery) with classical engineering (Kaumera Nereda® Gum extraction and nitrogen stripping) and process design. This technological process is supplemented with modern approaches from social, political, economic and environmental sciences to stimulate the commercialisation of these technologies and their concomitant recovery products. @en

Chemical cleaning is vital for the optimal operation of membrane systems. Membrane chemical cleaning protocols are often developed in the laboratory flow cells (e.g., Membrane Fouling Simulator (MFS)) using synthetic feed water (nutrient excess) and short experimental time of typically days. However, full-scale Reverse Osmosis (RO) membranes are usually fed with nutrient limited feed water (due to extensive pre-treatment) and operated for a long-time of typically years. These operational differences lead to significant differences in the efficiency of chemical Cleaning-In-Place (CIP) carried out on laboratory-scale and on full-scale RO systems. Therefore, we investigated the suitability of lab-scale CIP results for full-scale applications. A lab-scale flow cell (i.e., MFSs) and two full-scale RO modules were analysed to compare CIP efficiency in terms of water flux recovery and biofouling properties (biomass content, Extracellular Polymeric Substances (EPS) composition and EPS adherence) under typical lab-scale and full-scale conditions. We observed a significant difference between the CIP efficiency in lab-scale (~50%) and full-scale (9–20%) RO membranes. Typical biomass analysis such as Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) measurements did not indicate any correlation to the observed trend in the CIP efficiency in the lab-scale and full-scale RO membranes. However, the biofilms formed in the lab-scale contains different EPS than the biofilms in the full-scale RO modules. The biofilms in the lab-scale MFS have polysaccharide-rich EPS (Protein/Polysaccharide ratio = 0.5) as opposed to biofilm developed in full-scale modules which contain protein-rich EPS (Protein/Polysaccharide ratio = 2.2). Moreover, EPS analysis indicates the EPS extracted from full-scale biofilms have a higher affinity and rigidity to the membrane surface compared to EPS from lab-scale biofilm. Thus, we propose that CIP protocols should be optimized in long-term experiments using the realistic feed water.

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Structural extracellular polymeric substances (structural EPS) can form stable hydrogels and are considered to be responsible for the stability of biofilms and aerobic granular sludge. Structural EPS were extracted from aerobic granular sludge and characterized for their gel-forming capacity with different alkaline earth and transition metal ions. The structural EPS hydrogels were compared to alginate hydrogels. Alginate is a well characterized polymer which is able to form stiff hydrogels with multivalent ions. The stiffness of the obtained hydrogels was measured with dynamic mechanical analysis and quantified by the Young's modulus. Furthermore the stability of structural EPS hydrogels towards disintegration in the presence of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) was evaluated at pH 4.5–10.5 and compared to that of alginate, polygalacturonic acid and κ-carrageenan. The stiffness of alginate hydrogels was multiple times higher than that of structural EPS. Alkaline earth metals resulted in stiffer alginate hydrogels than transition metals. For structural EPS this trend was opposite to alginate. Independent of the pH, polysaccharide hydrogels were quickly disintegrated when being exposed to EDTA. Structural EPS hydrogels demonstrated greater stability towards EDTA and were still intact after one month at pH 4.5–8.5. It is suggested that the gelling mechanism of structural EPS is not only related to metal ion complexation of the polymers, but to a combination of interactions of multiple functional groups present in structural EPS. This study helps to further understand and characterize structural EPS from aerobic granular sludge, and therewith understand its stability and that of biofilms in general.

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The circular economy requires high-value material recovery to enable multiple product lifecycles. This implies the need for additive manufacturing to focus on the development and use of low-impact materials that, after product use, can be reconstituted to their original properties in terms of printability and functionality. We therefore investigated reprintable materials, made from bio-based resources. In order to equally consider material properties and recovery during development, we took a design approach to material development. In this way, the full material and product life cycle was studied, including multiple recovery steps. We applied this method to the development of a reprintable bio-based composite material for extrusion paste printing. This material is derived from natural and abundant resources, i.e., ground mussel shells and alginate. the alginate in the printing paste is ionically cross-linked after printing to create a water-resistant material. This reaction can be reversed to retain a printable paste. We studied paste composition, printability and material properties and 3D printed a design prototype. Alginate as a binder shows good printing and reprinting behaviour, as well as promising material properties. It thus demonstrates the concept of reprintable materials.

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Routine chemical cleaning with the combined use of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) is carried out as a means of biofouling control in reverse osmosis (RO) membranes. The novelty of the research presented herein is in the application of urea, instead of NaOH, as a chemical cleaning agent to full-scale spiral-wound RO membrane elements. A comparative study was carried out at a pilot-scale facility at the Evides Industriewater DECO water treatment plant in the Netherlands. Three fouled 8-inch diameter membrane modules were harvested from the lead position of one of the full-scale RO units treating membrane bioreactor (MBR) permeate. One membrane module was not cleaned and was assessed as the control. The second membrane module was cleaned by the standard alkali/acid cleaning protocol. The third membrane module was cleaned with concentrated urea solution followed by acid rinse. The results showed that urea cleaning is as effective as the conventional chemical cleaning with regards to restoring the normalized feed channel pressure drop, and more effective in terms of (i) improving membrane permeability, and (ii) solubilizing organic foulants and the subsequent removal of the surface fouling layer. Higher biomass removal by urea cleaning was also indicated by the fact that the total organic carbon (TOC) content in the HCl rinse solution post-urea-cleaning was an order of magnitude greater than in the HCl rinse after standard cleaning. Further optimization of urea-based membrane cleaning protocols and urea recovery and/or waste treatment methods is proposed for full-scale applications.

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Chemical cleaning is routinely performed in reverse osmosis (RO) plants for the regeneration of RO membranes that suffer from biofouling problems. The potential of urea as a chaotropic agent to enhance the solubilization of biofilm proteins has been reported briefly in the literature. In this paper the efficiency of urea cleaning for RO membrane systems has been compared to conventionally applied acid/alkali treatment. Preliminary assessment confirmed that urea did not damage the RO polyamide membranes and that the membrane cleaning efficiency increased with increasing concentrations of urea and temperature. Accelerated biofilm formation was carried out in membrane fouling simulators which were subsequently cleaned with (i) 0.01M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and 0.1M hydrochloric acid (HCl) (typically applied in industry), (ii) urea (CO(NH ₂ ) ₂ ) and hydrochloric acid, or (iii) urea only (1340 g/L _water ). The pressure drop over the flow channel was used to evaluate the efficiency of the applied chemical cleanings. Biomass removal was evaluated by measuring chemical oxygen demand (COD), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), protein, and carbohydrate content from the membrane and spacer surfaces after cleaning. In addition to protein and carbohydrate quantification of the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), fluorescence excitation−emission matrix (FEEM) spectroscopy was used to distinguish the difference in organic matter of the remaining biomass to assess biofilm solubilization efficacy of the different cleaning agents. Results indicated that two-stage CO(NH ₂ ) ₂ /HCl cleaning was as effective as cleaning with NaOH/HCl in terms of restoring the feed channel pressure drop (>70% pressure drop decrease). One-stage cleaning with urea only was not as effective indicating the importance of the second-stage low pH acid cleaning in weakening the biofilm matrix. All three chemical cleaning protocols were equally effective in reducing the concentration of predominant EPS components protein and carbohydrate (>50% reduction in concentrations). However, urea-based cleaning strategies were more effective in solubilizing protein-like matter and tyrosine-containing proteins. Furthermore, ATP measurements showed that biomass inactivation was up to two-fold greater after treatment with urea-based chemical cleanings compared to the conventional acid/alkali treatment. The applicability of urea as an alternative, economical, eco-friendly and effective chemical cleaning agent for the control of biological fouling was successfully demonstrated.

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Nature displays a multitude of fascinating materials, from beautiful colors of butterfly wings to the toughness of mullosc shells, which are formed in mild enviornmental conditions with commonly occuring materials, such as chitosan or calcium carbonate. These composite materials display an intricate interplay of biopolymers and minerals forming highly ordered structure. The function of these materials is primarily determined by the selective pressure of the enviornment that certain organisms are placed in. It varies from the “delicate” signaling colors to a robust impact resistence.@en

Here we report on a study of a rheological behavior of sodium alginate and montmorillonite suspension. We find that viscoelastic behavior of this suspension is dramatically affected with increasing volume fraction of montmorillonite platelets. Addition of montmorillonite generally leads to gel formation, which is attributed to interactions of montmorillonite and alginate via H-bonding and attraction between the positive edges of the platelets and the anionic backbone of the biopolymer. A critical concentration for the measured system was observed at 20 wt.% montmorillonite, where a crossover to a gel-like structure was detected. The observed gel has a rubber plateau, which develops further with higher montmorillonite concentration. In this physical gel the relaxation maximum was detected, which is associated with the breaking and reformation of the bonds between the platelets and the biopolymer. For this transient behavior, we find that a Maxwell type viscoelasticity quite well describes the relaxation time and the observed G'-G" crossover. We believe that this gel-like behavior plays an important role in formation of highly ordered nanostructures that develop during the drying of these bio-nanocomposite suspensions.@en

The water sorption and diffusion in (reduced) graphene oxide-alginate composites of various compositions is analyzed. Water sorption of sodium alginate can be significantly reduced by the inclusion of graphene oxide sheets due to the formation of an extensive hydrogen bonding network between oxygenated groups. Crosslinking alginate with divalent metal ions and the presence of reduced graphene oxide can further improve the swelling resistance due to the strong interactions between metal ions, alginate, and filler sheets. Depending on conditions and composition, the overall water barrier properties of alginate composites improve upon (reduced) graphene oxide filling, making them attractive for moisture barrier coating applications. Water sorption kinetics in all alginate composites indicate a non-Fickian diffusion process that can be accurately described by the Variable Surface Concentration model. In addition, the water barrier properties of sodium alginate-graphene oxide composites can be adequately predicted using a simple model that takes the orientational order of filler sheets and their effective aspect ratio into account. (Figure presented.).

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Most concrete structures are designed to last for at least 50 years or more. During their lifetime these structures are exposed to various environmental actions. On going cement hydration guarantees a stronger concrete in terms of bond between the aggregates, fewer voids, and depercolation of capillary pores, which is of particular importance for cover concrete. Thus, a properly cured cement-based material is the ultimate preparation for a long service life, since it prevents the surface from drying. A new environmentally friendly, water-based curing compound, made of sodium alginate bio-polymers, has recently been developed at TU Delft that could help to achieve these goals. Experimental Rapid Chloride Migration tests and Environmental Scanning Microscope observations are conducted on different samples to investigate the functional properties, e.g. ion transport, and microstructural investigation, to examine the performance of the new bio-based curing compound. Mortar samples were cured at 50% RH and 20 °C both with and without surface addition of the bio-based compound. Two different types of cement, CEM I and CEM III/B, were tested to study differences in curing performance. Significant beneficial effects were observed at the mortar surface when applying the bio-based curing compound showing reduced diffusivity. The results showed a very good quality surface with a high quality and durable microstructure. Also, a higher curing sensitivity was observed for the CEM III/B samples compared to samples prepared with CEM I.@en