This study addresses a critical gap in circular construction practices by assessing the use of high-quality Recycled Coarse Aggregates (RCA) from end-of-life concrete on an industrial scale. Unlike previous studies, which predominantly relied on theoretical mix designs or laboratory-level experiments, this research focuses on real-world applicability, employing commercially produced RCA and conventional production methods in industrial settings to identify upscaling challenges. Advanced Dry Recovery technology is utilized to produce high-quality RCA for both ready-mix and prefab concrete production. To ensure practical relevance, the research examines three water-to-cement ratios for ready-mix concrete and three strength classes for prefab concrete, all prepared and cast in a commercial setting using standard industrial practices. The results show that by selecting the appropriate application for RCA, there is potential for concrete companies to produce mixes using 100% RCA that meet standard requirements in terms of fresh, mechanical, and durability properties without the need for extra treatments or specific mixing methods, particularly when the water absorption of RCA is less than 4%. Achieving optimal performance requires adjustments in the mix design, specifically by considering the effective water-to-cement ratio. Additionally, the study underscores the impact of the parent concrete's properties on the RCA quality. This research not only demonstrates the feasibility of employing RCA in industrial-scale concrete production along with its associated challenges but also highlights the potential for enhancing circularity in the construction industry through large-scale adoption of RCA, thereby contributing to sustainable and circular construction practices.

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Recycling coarse aggregates from construction and demolition waste is essential for sustainable construction practices. However, the quality of recycled coarse aggregates (RCA) often fluctuates significantly, in contrast to the more stable quality of natural aggregates. Contaminants in RCA notably compromise its quality and usability. Therefore, automating the quality control of RCA is necessary for the recycling industry. This study introduces an industry-focused, innovative, and rapid quality control system that combines Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) with 3D scanning technologies to enhance the detection of contaminants in RCA streams. The system involves a synchronized application of LIBS for spectral analysis and 3D scanning for the physical characterization of different materials. Results reveal that the dependability of single-shot LIBS analysis has been enhanced, thus elevating the precision of contaminant detection. This improvement is achieved by accounting for the laser shot's angle of incidence and focal length adjustments. The introduced technology holds potential for application in the real-time examination of substantial volumes of RCA, facilitating a rapid and reliable quality control method. This rapid assessment technique delivers online data about the concentration of contaminants in RCA, including recycled fine aggregates, cement paste, bricks, foam, glass, gypsum, mineral fibers, plastics, and wood. This data is both essential and sufficient for choosing a cost-effective mortar recipe and guaranteeing the performance of the final concrete product in terms of strength and durability in construction projects. The system can monitor the quality of RCA flows at throughputs of 50 tons per hour per conveyor, characterizing approximately 4000 particles in every ton of RCA, in this way signaling the most critical contaminants at levels of less than 50 parts per million. With these characteristics, the system could also become relevant for other applications, such as characterizing mining waste or solid biofuels for power plants.@en

The construction industry urgently requires a resilient information system for effective coordination of data transmission among various stakeholders, including both the public and private sectors. Such an advanced digital solution would not only enhance transparency along the value chain but also improve both the quality of and confidence in recycled materials. Achieving circularity and reducing environmental impact are closely tied to the efficient management of material flows and life cycles. Within this context, Material Passports (MPs) are posited as a foundational element, particularly when integrated with a digital database. This integration is particularly beneficial for increasing the circularity of concrete, beginning with end-of-life concrete, a major contributor to global construction and demolition waste. MPs effectively transmit crucial information about the quality of recycled aggregates, thereby enabling their use in future construction projects. This study explores the feasibility of employing Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology as an MP, aiming to enhance sustainability in the concrete industry by improving transparency, traceability, and data reliability in the recycled concrete supply chain. Extensive laboratory tests carried out in three distinct experimental phases revealed that RFID tags exhibit remarkable resilience to mechanical stress typical in the supply chain and consistently maintain readability when embedded in concrete. The water content in concrete samples was identified as a significant factor influencing initial tag readability, although readability improved over time. Other factors, such as the type of aggregates, particle size distribution, and proximity to steel rebar, had minimal to modest impacts on tag performance. Additionally, the study confirmed that the readability of RFID tags remains robust at typical transport speeds, which highlights the potential of an RFID-based system in advancing supply chain management. This study provides a solid foundation for future research in this evolving area.

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Critical raw materials (CRMs) are one of the enablers of a sustainable future due to their importance in green technologies. Yet, their own circularity and end-of-life recycling rates have been lacking as their concentrations are too low in waste products to be efficiently recycled. This is not the case, however, for discarded printed circuit boards where different types of electronics components (ECs) use specific CRMs in high concentrations. Furthermore, due to worldwide manufacturing standards these ECs are consistent between different printed circuit boards (PCBs) in their physical characteristics such as size, shape and material composition. Yet at the moment no sorting methods exist that can separate ECs from modern PCBs. Therefore, we aim to evaluate multiple simple yet effective mechanical separation methods to sort said ECs with CRM recovery in mind. First of all, ECs from flat-panel displays were sieved into a small (<4 mm), medium (4 - 10 mm) and large fraction (>10 mm). This was followed by a roll sorter to separate thinner components, like IC chips, from similarly sized thicker ECs. In order to separate the components based on ferromagnetic composition an innovative overbelt ferromagnetic separator was developed where the magnetic field strength continuously decreased over the length of the belt. Lastly, the different types of ECs were analysed by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy to identify the presence of any CRMs. Our study shows that by combining these three different sorting technologies it is possible to sort the ECs in a way that the majority of CRM containing components are concentrated in only 21.09 wt% of the total weight. This in turn results in significantly higher CRM concentrations, thus removing a major limitation to their recovery and improving CRM circularity for a more sustainable future.
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The high-precision scrap sorting for effective metal recycling can bring substantial environmental and economic benefits. This article presents a magnetic image sensor that can help to identify the ferrous contaminants inside nonferrous scraps of large sizes. First, the concept and the theory for detecting ferrous contaminants are described. In particular, an inversion algorithm is proposed to characterize the size and position of ferrous contaminants inside the main scrap bodies. Then, based on computed and measured results, the feasibility of sensor design using either 1-D Hall arrays or 1-D pickup coils is demonstrated. Finally, methods are suggested to minimize disturbing signals from very large nonferrous pieces passing through the slightly uneven magnetic field. The obtained findings in this study may apply not only to nonferrous scraps but many other materials of which the mass ratio of the ferrous contaminant to the main material is small.

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The growing demand for aluminium worldwide makes aluminium recycling critical to realising a circular economy and increasing the sustainability of our world. One effective way to improve the impact of aluminium recycling is to develop cost-efficient automated sorting technologies for obtaining pre-defined high-quality aluminium scrap products, thus reducing undesirable downcycling and increasing environmental/economic benefits. In this work, an innovative facility, which includes singulation, sensor scanning, and ejection, is optimised for the automated sorting of aluminium scraps. The sorting facility is computationally studied by a virtual experiment model based on the discrete element method. The model considers particle-scale dynamics of complex-shaped scraps and mimics the automated operation of the facility. Based on virtual experiment modelling, the flow of scrap is optimized by computation, with the feasible operation of the sorting facility being proposed. Accordingly, the sorting facility has been built and model predictions are confirmed in actual operation.@en

Solid waste sorting is an important pre-treatment in recycling to improve the efficiency of material recovery and reduce costs. Motivated by the PEACOC project on metal recovery from solid wastes, an innovative magnetic density separation (MDS) process has been developed for solid waste sorting. It has intrinsic advantages over conventional gravity separation technologies and the previously industrialized MDS process. The new MDS process applies an inclined planar magnet and a horizontal basin containing a static magnetic fluid as the separation medium. A particle sliding phenomenon is identified as a feature that could help the separation. Experiments have been carried out to demonstrate the role of the MDS in concentrating valuable metals in shredded PCBAs and reducing metallic contaminants in plastic fractions of shredded wires. A pilot scale facility is introduced to show the design to achieve continuous production and to reduce the consumption of ferrofluid.@en

To upcycle End-of-Life (EoL) concrete from demolished buildings, it is essential to efficiently identify the different materials that may contaminate it. The precise identification and classification of materials and contaminants are vital processes for in-line quality inspection of recycled concrete aggregates transported on a conveyor belt. In this study, a total of eight potential contaminants are considered as target contaminant materials in the streams made of coarse and fine aggregates resulting from the upcycling of EoL concrete. These contaminants degrade the quality of the aggregates even at low concentrations, so it is essential to identify the presence of such contaminants along with the main products of recycling which are recycled coarse aggregates (RCA) and recycled fine aggregates (RFA). An efficient method is proposed to identify and classify EoL concrete waste along with RCA and RFA in motion on conveyor belts via laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) coupled with a cluster-based identification algorithm. The model is verified with an accuracy of 0.97, a precision (weighted average) of 0.98, a recall (weighted average) of 0.97, and an F1-score (weighted average) of 0.98 for the validation set, under the optimal conditions. This study suggests that LIBS may be well suited for fast and in-line analysis of recycled concrete aggregates in industrial applications. This approach presents an innovative approach for the quality characterization of secondary materials produced from EoL concrete being transported on conveyor belts, and therefore can be of great value for the processing and high-end utilization of EoL concrete.

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This paper aims to summarize, propose, and discuss existing or emerging strategies to shift towards a circular economy of materials. To clarify the landscape of existing circular practices, a new spectrum is proposed, from product-based strategies, where entire products go through several life cycles without being reprocessed, to material-based approaches, extracting, recycling, and reprocessing materials from the waste flow. As refillable packaging does not lose any functionality or value, when re-used through many life cycles, product-based strategies are globally extremely efficient and must be promoted. It appears however that their implementation is only possible at the scale of individual products such as packaging containers, relying on the cooperation of involved companies and consumers. It appears more and more urgent to focus as well on a more systematic and flexible material-oriented scheme. The example of circular glass recycling is a success in many countries, and technologies become nowadays available to extend such practices to many other materials, such as rigid plastics. An ideal would be to aim at an economy of materials that would imitate the continuous material cycle of the biosphere. Technological and business strategies are presented and discussed, aiming at a relevant impact on circularity.@en

In this article, electromagnet layouts are presented, which generate a magnetic field with a magnitude gradient that does not vary significantly in a horizontal plane but decreases monotonically with the vertical height above the magnet. Such a one-direction magnetic field gradient is a specific requirement for magnetic density separation (MDS), a novel recycling technology that combines a vertical magnetic field gradient with a ferrofluid to separate a mixture of non-magnetic materials based on their mass density. We are assembling the first superconducting magnet to be used for this application. In contrast to other separation technologies that use ferrofluid, multiple products can be separated in a single process step. First, the idealized current distribution is introduced that produces such a magnetic field with a magnitude that decays only in one direction. This ideal field can be approximated with practical coil configurations, which are evaluated with a Fourier analysis to derive an optimal cross-sectional layout based on flat racetrack coils. The analysis concludes with a discussion of the effect of winding pack thickness on the value of the magnetic field above the magnet system and the peak field inside the winding pack. The conclusions of this study are applicable not just for MDS but for any application that requires a magnetic field gradient that changes only in one direction.

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This article discusses the optimum layout of coils of a superconducting magnet system for magnetic density separation (MDS). MDS is a novel separation technology that combines a vertical magnetic field gradient with a ferrofluid to separate mixtures of non-magnetic particles based on their mass density. The MDS process can separate more than two types of particles in a single process step, thereby distinguishing it from other separation techniques using a ferrofluid. The authors are currently constructing a superconducting MDS demonstrator. Ideally, the gradient of the magnetic field magnitude should change only with the distance above the magnet but remain constant in a horizontal plane. In principle, such an ideal field profile can be generated with an infinite harmonic sheet current. In practice, edge effects appear due to the necessity of using a finite number of coils. These cause a horizontal component in the field gradient and also change the vertical component. We compare the vertical magnetic field gradient of various coil layouts to see which configuration performs best. To facilitate ease of production, the analysis is restricted to flat racetrack coils. The main result is that the specific shape of a racetrack coil has a larger influence on the vertical gradient than the number of coils. The feed particles need to be pushed through the separation chamber from the insertion to the collection point. One option to realize this is to use an MDS setup in which the magnet is inclined with respect to the horizontal plane. This tilting results in a horizontal magnetic force component, which drives feed particles through the fluid bed. We show that a three-coil layout provides the largest usable fluid bed depth for a wide range of tilt angles.

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This study focuses on formulating the most sustainable concrete by incorporating recycled concrete aggregates and other products retrieved from construction and demolition (C&D) activities. Both recycled coarse aggregates (RCA) and recycled fine aggregates (RFA) are firstly used to fully replace the natural coarse and fine aggregates in the concrete mix design. Later, the cement rich ultrafine particles, recycled glass powder and mineral fibres recovered from construction and demolition wastes (CDW) are further incorporated at a smaller rate either as cement substituent or as supplementary additives. Remarkable properties are noticed when the RCA (4–12 mm) and RFA (0.25–4 mm) are fully used to replace the natural aggregates in a new concrete mix. The addition of recycled cement rich ultrafines (RCU), Recycled glass ultrafines (RGU) and recycled mineral fibres (RMF) into recycled concrete improves the modulus of elasticity. The final concrete, which comprises more than 75% (wt.) of recycled components/materials, is believed to be the most sustainable and green concrete mix. Mechanical properties and durability of this concrete have been studied and found to be within acceptable limits, indicating the potential of recycled aggregates and other CDW components in shaping sustainable and circular construction practices.

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Can random deposition create dense non-overlapping material feeding? The question is very fundamental for the research of particle packing, while the answer is of great importance for any industrial process that applies single object operation. To gain an insight into this issue, we studied the overlap problems of convex particles in the manner of uniformly random deposition. The overlap probability of two convex particles with arbitrary shapes and sizes is formulated, and the coverage fractions of free particles and sticking particles (particles of the bottom layer) are precisely predicted. Simulations with rectangular particles verified the theory. Surprisingly, free particles can only occupy less than 7.5% of the plane area, much smaller than what is intuitively expected. Sticking particles, however, can easily cover 19%, a factor of 2.5 times larger. The finding is of great value for applications that need to create dense non-overlapping feeding.

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Currently, natural resources are consumed at an alarming rate than their production (United Nations Environment Programme, 2014). This imposes unprecedented pressure on the environment. The problem seems to get worse with the present increase in population and demand for infrastructures. To alleviate these and other related problems, a circular approach to construction material flow is crucial. Recycling construction and demolition wastes (C&DW) to generate high-quality materials is essential to ensure materials circularity in the construction sector. This article, therefore, describes the development of two large-scale technologies called Advanced Dry Recovery (ADR) and Heating Air classification System (HAS). ADR and HAS are industrial-scale technologies aimed to recycle End-of-Life (EoL) concrete into coarse, fine and ultrafine particles. While ADR is used to sort out clean coarse aggregates, HAS is used to produce clean fine aggregates by heating and separating the ultrafine hydrated cement components. The process parameters and the quality of aggregates are briefly described. Accordingly, concrete made of recycled coarse and fine aggregates displays comparable mechanical properties as the reference concrete which is made of natural aggregates. Both technologies are designed to be mobile so that EoL concrete wastes are processed at the site of demolition or close to ready-mix concrete plants, reducing the heavy traffic related to construction activities. These technologies, in general, have a potential in increasing sustainability and thereby greening the construction sector. This is by far a convenient contribution towards sustainable development and a big step towards closing the recycling loop in the construction sector.@en

An innovative route for plastics recycling is proposed, based on a combination of a logarithmic sorting process and colour plus high-resolution near-infrared (NIR) sensors. Although counterintuitive, it is shown that such a technology could sort clean flakes from rigid packaging waste into a very large number of different plastic grades with modest sorter capacity, provided that the chosen sensor is able to differentiate correctly between any two grades of plastics in the waste. Tests with high-resolution NIR on single pixels of transparent flakes from different types and brands of packaging show that this is indeed the case for a selection of 20 different packaging items bought from shops. Moreover, the results seem to indicate, in line with previous research, that high-resolution NIR data can be linked to important physical plastic properties like the melt flow viscosity and tensile strength. The attraction of deep sorting of waste plastics with relatively cheap sensors and modest sorter capacity is that the present industrial practice of tuning plastic grades to specific applications could coexist with commercial high-grade recycling at high levels of circularity and low carbon footprint. Therefore, advanced recycling technology is likely to be a societal alternative to phasing out plastics for rigid applications.

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Circular concrete is one of the main focuses of current research in the construction industry. This is due to the fact that the construction sector is facing several pressures from society and policymakers. In an attempt to assure the sustainability of the sector, different research options have been put in place. Among them, the use of recycled aggregates and recycled cement is a subject of current research.

The objective of this study is to optimize the particle size distribution of aggregates and understand the compaction of concrete made of recycled aggregates and recycled cement, so as to reduce the amount of cement used in the new concrete mix. Particle size optimization is aimed at improving the density of concrete made of regularly packed aggregates and the distribution of voids, thereby improving its sustainability and strength. This could be achieved by optimizing the amount of water, the size of aggregates and fillers, and adjusting the amount of cement in the mix design.

In this specific study, recycled aggregates (<12mm) are used along with natural aggregates of different sizes (<12mm and <16 mm). The role of maximum aggregate size and the effect of the complete substitution of natural aggregates with recycled aggregates have been studied. Furthermore, the effects of compaction, the role of internal pores, and aggregate size distribution on the mechanical properties of hardened recycled concrete are also investigated. Three recipes have been designed to employ different types of aggregates. The water-to-cement ratio of the recipes was adjusted based on the magnitude of the slump. The recipes were cast in various procedures associated with different durations of vibration to understand the role of vibration on their compressive strength after 7, 28, and 91 days.

After optimizing the duration of vibration and casting concrete samples, the selected specimens with natural aggregates and recycled aggregates were scanned by a macro-CT scanner to comprehend the spatial distribution of aggregates and air bubbles inside the hardened concrete. Results indicate that the duration of vibration was observed to be critical depending on the type and size of aggregate. Despite the direct relationship between vibration and internal pores, the impact seems to be negative beyond a certain time. The compaction and mechanical properties of concrete made of recycled aggregates need more vibration compared to natural aggregates.@en

To prevent eutrophication of surface water, phosphate needs to be removed from sewage. Iron (Fe) dosing is commonly used to achieve this goal either as the main strategy or in support of biological removal. Vivianite (Fe(II) ₃ (PO ₄ ) ₂ * 8H ₂ O) plays a crucial role in capturing the phosphate, and if enough iron is present in the sludge after anaerobic digestion, 70–90% of total phosphorus (P) can be bound in vivianite. Based on its paramagnetism and inspired by technologies used in the mining industry, a magnetic separation procedure has been developed. Two digested sludges from sewage treatment plants using Chemical Phosphorus Removal were processed with a lab-scale Jones magnetic separator with an emphasis on the characterization of the recovered vivianite and the P-rich caustic solution. The recovered fractions were analyzed with various analytical techniques (e.g., ICP-OES, TG-DSC-MS, XRD and Mössbauer spectroscopy). The magnetic separation showed a concentration factor for phosphorus and iron of 2–3. The separated fractions consist of 52–62% of vivianite, 20% of organic matter, less than 10% of quartz and a small quantity of siderite. More than 80% of the P in the recovered vivianite mixture can be released and thus recovered via an alkaline treatment while the resulting iron oxide has the potential to be reused. Moreover, the trace elements in the P-rich caustic solution meet the future legislation for recovered phosphorus salts and are comparable to the usual content in Phosphate rock. The efficiency of the magnetic separation and the advantages of its implementation in WWTP are also discussed in this paper.

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End of Life (EOL) concrete fines, that is often 0–4 m, is one of the massive by-products of concrete recycling. Using this fraction into new concrete is detrimental, due to its high water absorption and mixed contaminants. Although the construction sector is to some extent familiar with the utilization of the coarse fraction of crushed concrete, at present there is no high-quality application for crushed concrete fines. Here we present an effective recycling process on lab scale to separate the cementitious powder from the sandy part in the crushed concrete fines and deliver attractive products with the minimum amount of contaminants. For this study, a lab scale Heating-Air classification System (HAS) was designed and constructed. A combination of heat and air classification, resulted in a proper separation of finer fraction (0–0.250 mm), from coarser fractions. Heating of the materials was followed by ball milling to enhance the liberation of the cementitious fraction. Experiments were carried out at different heating temperatures and milling durations. Experimental results show that by heating the materials to 500 °C for 30 s, the required time of ball milling is diminished by a factor of three and the quality of the recycling products satisfies the market demand. In addition, the removal of contaminants is complete at 500 °C. The amount of CaO in the recovered finer fraction from the recycling process is comparable with the amount of CaO in low-quality limestone. By using this fraction in the cement kiln as the replacement of limestone, the release of the chemically bound CO2 could be reduced by a factor of three. This proof of concept constitutes the starting point for the new HAS technology proposed in the Horizon 2020 VEEP project. Keywords@en

This paper proposes a new value-based indicator to assess the performance of actors in the supply chain in terms of resource efficiency and circular economy. Most of the methodologies developed so far measure resource efficiency on the basis of the environmental burden of the resource relative to the value of output. However, the key point of circular economy is keeping resources within the economy when products no longer serve their functions so that materials can be used again and therefore generate more value. The unit in which resource efficiency and circular economy are measured greatly affects both the ease of acceptance by policymakers and the direction in which green policy will change our society. Whereas the most common approaches to assessing resource efficiency and circular economy use mass, in this paper we advocate measuring both resource efficiency and circular economy in terms of the market value of ‘stressed’ resources, since this value incorporates the elements of scarcity versus competition as well as taxes representing urgent social and environmental externalities. The market value of resources is well-documented and responds automatically to the locality and time at which resources are used. Applying this unit, circularity is defined as the percentage of the value of stressed resources incorporated in a service or product that is returned after its end-of-life. Resource efficiency is the ratio of added product value divided by the value of stressed resources used in production or a process thereof. It is argued that precisely the concept of a free market, in which materials, parts and components are exchanged purely on the basis of their functionality and cost, allows the resource efficiency of a process (KPI for industry and governance) to be distinguished from the resource efficiency of a product (KPI for consumers and governance). Using standard industry data from Statistics Netherlands, the resource efficiency of several Dutch industries were evaluated using the new methodology and compared with a traditional mass-based approach.

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