The human eye is a very delicate yet highly intricate organ, and treatments such as cataract surgery call for meticulous precision. Ophthalmologists hone their skills over years of practice, which they initially acquired during their studies in medical schools. Basic skills such as globe fixation and capsulorhexis training have a very steep learning curve as they are fundamental, albeit very challenging from the get-go. There is a lack of training simulators that can combine both surgical techniques as effectively and economically as animal eye setups. In this respect, the present research work aims at designing a cataract surgery eye phantom for capsulorhexis and globe fixation, which can replicate the movement of the eyeball in the orbit coupled with the inherent passive stiffness. The project culminates in the design of a 2-degree-of-freedom anterior human eye phantom with anatomically similar features of the human eye needed for training the aforementioned surgical steps. A significant part of the prototype structure is 3D printed using Draft resin V2 on the Formlabs Form 3+ printer to create minute yet almost anatomically impeccable components. Mechanical analyses were performed to tune the passive stiffness of the compliant mechanisms, and materials such as PlatSil Gel-00, hydrogel, and eggshell membrane were chosen and utilized to replicate the interactions between the tools and various tissues in the human eye. Clinical evaluations were conducted by a surgeon performing capsulorhexis on the prototype in a wet lab environment and several validation tests by an academic trainer for the suitability and practicality of the prototype. In that context, the present research serves as the first step toward creating innovative designs for training phantoms in the field of eye surgery.

The availability of laparoscopy in low-income settings has been limited based on the requirements that have to be met to perform this type of abdominal surgery. At the same time, these regions and countries could stand to gain the most from it based on quicker recovery times and a lower chance of infections. Attempts have been made to solve this inaccessibility by minimizing the required components to perform this type of surgery at a substantially lower cost. None of these projects have resulted in a laparoscope that can compete with commercial laparoscopes regarding resolution, image quality, and critical design features such as viewing angle. Based on these shortcomings, this study aims to design a sub-500-dollar modular laparoscope for gas and gasless laparoscopy that adheres to state-of-the-art image quality and design features. The laparoscopes are designed following the 'Roadmap for Design of Surgical Equipment for Safe Surgery Worldwide”. Based on the roadmap requirements regarding the needs of patients, end-users, and stakeholders, were acquired focusing on cost, robustness, and reusability. Following the design process, two intermediate prototypes were developed, which were evaluated based on function and image quality by a laparoscopic surgeon to validate the requirements and receive design feedback. They resulted in a modular laparoscope that connects with USB to a laptop, which shares the image sensor, light source, electronics, and handle between the laparoscope for gas and gasless laparoscopy. The gasless laparoscope employs a flexible chip-on-the-tip design that can be straightened for entry through a trocar and released to set the tip angle at 30 degrees. The gasless laparoscope does not have to comply with the trocar and can enter straight through the abdominal entry point. Resulting in a chip-on-the-tip design, which is statically bent at an angle of 30 degrees. To validate the design, a laparoscopic surgeon evaluated the function and image quality, and additional tests were performed to validate the thermal and reprocessing capability. The study resulted in a modular sub-500-dollar laparoscope for gas and gasless laparoscopy, which shows great potential but requires future work to be certified and production-ready.

Background: Laparoscopic surgery has improved patient outcomes and reduced healthcare costs in high-income countries but faces implementation barriers in low -and middle-income countries due to reliance on carbon dioxide insufflation, expensive equipment, and specialized personnel. Gas Insufflation-Less Laparoscopic Surgery (GILLS) provides an alternative by lifting the abdominal wall without carbon dioxide; however, expensive laparoscopes and assisting staff to operate those remain necessary. Hence, the need for a device that substitutes for the gas insufflation and laparoscope was identified.

Methods: This thesis aimed to integrate an abdominal wall lift (AWL) device and imaging system to enhance GILLS and Single-Incision Laparoscopic Surgery (SILS). Using a context-driven approach, the design focused on surgeon visibility, patient safety, cost-effectiveness, and user-friendliness. The device was developed using inexpensive, readily available components and conventional production techniques. The validation included seven verification tests and an expert user evaluation.

Results: The lifting device consists of a stainless steel tubular hook with LED lighting and a $5$ MP camera module. It can be inserted in the abdomen through a small incision, lifts the abdominal wall, and creates a clear view inside the abdominopelvic cavity. An aluminum prototype had sufficient structural strength, was cost-effective, lightweight, and compatible with existing AWL systems, but it generated excessive heat, was not waterproof, and lacked a functional imaging system. Evaluation by a GILLS expert highlighted design strengths while emphasizing three areas for improvement: the frame's shape, the imaging system, and the sealing technique.

Conclusion: This study illustrated the potential of integrating an abdominal wall lift device and imaging system despite the substantial constraints of the current tubular design. The cost-effective alternative eliminates the reliance on carbon dioxide gas, expensive laparoscopes, general anesthesia, and untrained assisting staff. Therefore, development should continue to improve access to laparoscopic surgery worldwide.

This study investigates surgical stainless steels 304, 410, and 420 corrosion susceptibility under manual reprocessing conditions typical of low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Cleaning protocols using sodium hypochlorite and the enzymatic agent Sanizyme were compared alongside an accelerated Salt Mist Test to explore predictive value for corrosion. Results show that sodium hypochlorite causes rapid corrosion across all steel types. In contrast, Sanizyme significantly delays corrosion onset and reduces the affected surface area, with stainless steel 304 demonstrating the most outstanding resilience. Minor differences between 410 and 420 were observed, with no significant performance distinction.
Including 2-hour rest periods, intended to activate stainless steel’s self-healing properties, did not significantly impact corrosion resistance. Additionally, the Salt Mist Test showed limited correlation with corrosion development observed under manual reprocessing conditions, indicating the need for refined predictive methods. These findings suggest that gentler enzymatic cleaning protocols enhance the longevity of surgical instruments in LMIC contexts, while accelerated corrosion tests may require adjustments to simulate clinical reprocessing better.

Background: The global overuse of Caesarean sections (C-sections), especially in high-resource settings, and the underuse of assisted vaginal deliveries in low-resource regions highlight the need for improved Vacuum-Assisted Delivery (VAD) training tools. Existing phantoms, such as "Lucy and Lucy’s Mum," suffer from anatomical inaccuracies and limited biomechanical realism, restricting their effectiveness. This project aimed to design a new, cost-effective VAD training phantom that addresses these limitations by providing more accurate anatomical structures and biomechanical responses.

Design and Manufacturing: The final phantom design utilised Polylactic Acid (PLA) and FDM 3D printing techniques for solid parts and Ecoflex™ 00-30 silicone reinforced with 20 Denier nylon fabric for simulating the pelvic floor muscles and their biomechanical behavior during childbirth. The fetal head was constructed using PlatSil® Gel-25 silicone for the inner deformation core, and Ecoflex™ 00-30 reinforced with 80 Denier nylon fabric for realistic scalp deformation. Additionally, the phantom's modular design and aluminum-made supporting frame allowed easy replacement of parts for long-term use and more flexible phantom deployment.

Validation Results: Two validation phases were conducted. In the first phase, 5 gynecologists provided feedback, identifying issues with vacuum cup application and some biomechanical behaviors. These issues were fully addressed in the final design. The final validation, conducted by one single expert, confirmed that the vacuum cup application issue had been resolved. However, a new issue related to the palpation of the ischial spine was identified. Quantitative testing measured traction forces and pulling angles during VAD, confirming that the phantom accurately replicated clinical behaviors. The overall performance was highly rated.

Conclusion: This newly developed VAD training phantom mostly overcomes the critical limitations of existing models by enhancing both anatomical accuracy and biomechanical realism. The modular and cost-effective design ensures flexibility and allows for use in a wide range of obstetric training settings. However, the cost per training has yet to be fully evaluated, and further research is needed in this regard. Both qualitative expert feedback and quantitative testing confirmed the phantom’s effectiveness in improving VAD training. While the palpation issue identified in the final validation remains to be addressed, the lack of comprehensive data on specific anatomical and biomechanical properties continues to hinder the development of even more accurate models.

Background: Bilateral tubal ligation (BTL) is the most common method of contraception worldwide because it is safe and effective. However, its accessibility remains unequal among women in rural India, in part due to a lack of laparoscopic equipment. Rural hospitals therefore resort to gas insufflation-less laparoscopic surgery (GILLS) because it requires less complex equipment. The pneumoperitoneum is replaced by an abdominal wall lift (AWL) device, but these devices suffer from limitations concerning visibility and working space.
Methods: Initiated by the identified medical needs in rural India, a novel AWL device with an integrated imaging system is designed based on methods from literature and input from local end-users. It is a stainless steel hollow circular hook housing an LED lighting system and a 5 MP camera module. It can be connected to any laptop with a USB-A port. The device substitutes for both the traditional AWL device and currently used laparoscopes. The design is exemplified by a fully functional aluminium prototype used for verification and validation.
Results: The selected camera module is the key technology of this design because it provides state-of-the-art imaging at an unmatched price point. The lighting system used for the prototype does not provide enough light, has an asymmetric illumination distribution, and generates too much heat. A structural strength test showed that the strength of the prototype exceeds the material-adjusted design load by 30%. Furthermore, the prototype is cost-effective, lightweight, compatible with current AWL systems, and has limited waterproofness. User tests with an expert rural surgeon confirmed that this design has the potential to improve surgical outcomes of BTL and other procedures, and can increase access to specialized medical care in rural India.
Conclusions: It is strongly recommended to continue the development of this AWL device. The focus points should be the shape and size of the loop (and related cost-effective production techniques), a new lighting system, and the waterproofness of the device. Collaboration with rural surgeons and local biomedical engineers is crucial for context-driven development and implementation.

Limited access to surgical care in low- and middle-income countries has resulted in the loss of approximately 16.9 million lives annually, accounting for 32% of global deaths. This is more than tuberculosis, malaria and HIV combined.

Several factors contribute to this disparity, including the scarcity of surgical equipment. Despite the limited availability of equipment, a staggering 40% of donated equipment in sub-Saharan Africa is ultimately discarded in landfills due to its short lifecycle.

This is attributed to the lack of consideration for the local use context in the design of medical devices. For example, medical devices are not robust enough, can not be repaired locally due to lack of access to spare parts and might not function because of the harsh working environment. (i.e. fluctuations in the electricity grid).

Laparoscopy offers much shorter recovery times and reduces risks of infection, thus improving clinical outcomes and allowing individuals to return quickly, thus enhancing the livelihoods of families that might rely on a single source of income.

Recognising that equipment availability is an issue in hospitals, I designed EasyTower - a practical and cost effective design. EasyTower integrates an outer casing to securely store the devices required for laparoscopy, such as the diathermy, ENT drill, and insufflator. Seamless connectivity to an uninterruptible power supply ensures continuous operation through power outages.

The tower includes a laptop holder and a drawer for accessories. Instead of using the typical laparoscopic stack, costs are drastically reduced by using a laptop to replace the light source, screen and image processing, thus eliminating the need for expensive equipment, by connecting to a scope that works with a standard laptop or tablet.

EasyTower is designed to be mobile, thus ensuring equipment can be moved and utilised in various hospital settings as needed. It can easily be opened up and used directly. To reduce the risk of damaging the medical equipment, Easy tower folds into a safe, lockable storage space (like a flightcase), protecting equipment from frequent impacts with e.g. patient beds, thus ensuring a longer life span.

Produced from off-the-shelf components which can be easily procured in Africa, EasyTower can be produced locally and spare parts can be easily sourced, making it easy to repair locally. Easy tower reduces equipment needs and protects equipment from breaking, either due to impacts or due to electrical problems. In this way equipment can have a longer lifespan, thus preventing the equipment from ending-up in the landfill, contributing to a more accessible and sustainable healthcare system.

This project addresses the subject of integrating Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS) into low-to-middle income healthcare contexts, with a specific focus on Nepal. CMMS play a prominent role in enabling Biomedical Equipment Technicians (BMETs) to monitor and optimize the performance of medical equipment (WHO, 2012), streamline operational processes, and facilitate intra-hospital communication and decision-making (Basiony, 2013). However, existing CMMS solutions designed for high-income environments, often fail to seamlessly integrate into the unique workflows and needs of low-to-middle income settings (Cohen et al., 2023).

The central problem identified in the Nepalese context is a misalignment between the workflow of BMETs and the CMMS interface. An overwhelming amount of information and functionalities within the system, making it challenging for the BMETs to identify tasks. Reinforced by, that the Nepalese context places less value on data creation and tend to operate more in accordance with tasks that can be observed physically.

To identify and address this problem, a comparative study was conducted between a Dutch hospital and two Nepalese hospitals. Data was gathered using the context-mapping method (Vissers et al., 2005), and a comprehensive understanding of the system’s interface was obtained through the streamlined cognitive walkthrough method (Spencer, 2000). The design goal was to create an inclusive interface for BMETs in Nepal through the visualization of medical device data. Norman and Draper’s design steps (1986) were used to generate an iterative approach for designing an CMMS interface. A mixed-method approach, including the System Usability Scale (Brooke, 1996), was used to evaluate the iterative prototypes and the final interface design.

The results of this study showed, by visualizing medical device data, a transition from a data-centric system to a task-oriented system. BMETs in Nepal confirmed through evaluation that the final design represents an improvement on the systems towards a task-oriented interface that aligns more with their daily workflow.

The project serves an inspiration for future designers to illustrate the importance of a human-centered approach when adapting software from one context to another. By highlighting the importance of considering the needs and workflows of a setting. Furthermore, this project can be a resource for companies and NGOs seeking to develop CMMS solutions from a human-centered perspective. In the Nepalese context, it provides building blocks for designing CMMS systems that better suit the work environment. In essence, this research represents a step towards a more inclusive CMMS system and the broader conversation on human-centered design in healthcare technology.

Recently, the world population has crossed 8 million people and it is estimated that out of every three persons two cannot afford surgery (Meara et al., 2015a). Surgery is the primary treatment for one-third of the diseases (Quene et al., 2022), but since 6 percent of all procedures are performed in the poorest countries, where more than one third of the world’s population lives (Meara et al., 2015). This creates a need for accessible surgery.
Laparoscopic surgery is a commonly used surgery technique to replace open surgery on the abdominal region. Research shows that this method gas multiple benefits over conventional laparoscopy , including: lower infection rates, shorter hospital stay, faster return to normal activity, improved cosmetics, reduced postoperative pain and medication use (2013; Chao et al., 2016; Epstein et al., 2013; Kalser, 1993; Murphy et al., 1992; Solomon Bekele & Hagos Biluts, 2012; Straub et al., 2011; Udwadia, 2001; Zadey et al., 2023). However, in low resource countries, without advanced technology like robot arms, laparoscopes are hold by healthcare assistants. A field study showed that these healthcare assistants need to hold and manoeuvre the laparoscope in the abdominal without support. Resulting in fatigue that hinders the movement of the laparoscopic instruments and vision on the operation area. Therefore, the goal of this study is to
‘Design a product to improve the ergonomics for healthcare personnel that holds a laparoscope during surgery in low resource settings’.
To provide a thorough solution for this design goal incorporating the local context, a framework is chosen. The first four steps follow a Roadmap for safe (Oosting, 2019), covering: 0) identify need 1) understanding of the local context, 2) determine design requirements, 3) concept development and validation. Two following steps are added based on (Webb et al., 2022) 4) refine through design to manufacture 5) clinical validation. In this study, the last step is modified by a phantom test.
Step 0 concludes the reason for this study, the ergonomics of the healthcare assistants needs to be improved. Followed by gaining contextual insight though field studies in India. This results in preliminary design requirements that will updated during the study. This field study showed that it is desirable to have a holder that supports the laparoscope during surgery. The ideal location is below the RAIS abdominal ring (top of the incision) and above the laparoscopic instruments (placed at the bottom of the incision) and connected to the RAIS device. A second field study for Phase 3 at a WHO conference and rural hospitals in India is used to iterate and validate the concepts. In this step, an ideal design is made that form fits easily on the abdominal ring of the RAIS device and that provides a stable support for the laparoscope. In the fourth step, this design is refined for manufacturing. A medical grade material selection is performed which resulted into AISI 316L stainless steel that is able to be manipulated by cold forming and welding if needed. With this material and production method in mind, the holder is designed according to ISO 7153-1 to make sure the holder remains hygienic. An Indian manufacturer can produce the holder for around 200 Indian Rupees, meaning just above two euro, which is within the requirement of 5 Euros per piece.
A phantom test with an Indian surgeon is conducted to test the performance of the holder. The vertical force on the holder during surgery is measured and used for a final FEM analysis. The FEM analysis shows a stress well below the fatigue stress for 1e7 cycles. The phantom test concluded that the holder is suitable to support the laparoscope reducing the stress on the laparoscopic assistant. Secondly, the holder is suitable for implementation in low resource settings.
To conclude, the designed holder improves the ergonomics for the healthcare assistants during operation, its price to produce is well below 5 Euros and is therefore suitable for low resource settings. Initially it was desired to make a holder that could fix the laparoscope by a surgeon during single surgery, this demand was deemed unnecessary because the field study showed that enough personnel was available. However, introducing this option could also improve the ergonomics, but at the cost of complexity.

The development of the Chloe Syringe Extension Device (SED) is an initiative of Karlheinz Samenjo, Dr Gwer and Dr Aparna for the Kenyan market. The Chloe SED is a reusable, 3D-printable device that extends the locally available 10ml syringes and it is designed for female patients to be used for procedures related to pregnancy issues, such as Manual Vacuum Aspiration (MVA). The embodiment design is nearing completion. This master thesis explores further steps on the Chloe SEDs route to the introduction in Kenya, both legal and non-legal. Ultimately, this research aims at providing recommendations that can contribute to the acceptance of the device by its users.

Urinary schistosomiasis is with over 110 million infected people one of the most common parasitic infections worldwide, most commonly found in Sub-Saharan Africa. Urinary schistosomiasis is caused by the Schistosoma Haematobium (SH) parasite. The most common diagnostic method is manual microscopy, in which urine is manually examined to see whether SH eggs are present. This method requires expensive materials and well-trained staff, and is therefore often not available in remote areas. Therefore, a more accessible and automated method is being developed at the Delft University of Technology, based on the automated flow-based holographic analysis of urine samples. As the technology and its algorithms have become well developed and a context analysis for a diagnostic device using this technology has been performed, a clear need presents itself for developing the experimental setup into a functional and interactive diagnostic device and prototype.

To do so, the different components within the development of the diagnostic technology and product interaction have been separately developed in parallel design processes. Once the components were deemed sufficiently developed to meet the lists of requirements set out, they were combined into a single product embodiment design and prototype. This integrated prototype was designed to be both functional interactive, and all software required for this purpose was created.

The resulting integrated prototype was validated and optimized at the facilities of the Delft University of Technology using SH eggs in saline solution provided by the Leiden University Medical Centre. After this, an extensive field research was performed in Ivory Coast. In this, high quality data of urine samples was obtained using the prototype, and diagnosis was performed via manual microscopy to determine the number of eggs that could be potentially observed by the prototype. Aside from this, the overall performance of the prototype and its interaction in the envisioned context were assessed. The data gathered can be used in the future to reassess the diagnostic potential of the holographic technology, and optimize the reconstruction and classification algorithms within the existing prototype to turn it into a fully functional diagnostic device, capable of providing reliable and accessible diagnoses to rural areas of Africa.

An estimated 9 million infants are born prematurely each year in south Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, and the leading cause of death in preterms is respiratory distress syndrome (RDS). Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is a popular treatment for RDS and has been proven to be safe, feasible, and effective for use in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The well-documented success of supportive CPAP in LMICs and prophylactic CPAP in developed countries indicates that delivery room CPAP has the potential to be implemented successfully in LMICs. The aim of this thesis is to explore the feasibility of a simple, low-cost, portable neonatal CPAP device for use in the delivery room in LMICs. A portable CPAP device was modelled in Simulink to predict the pressure and flowrate at any point in the CPAP circuit. A prototype composed of a centrifugal fan, silicone tubing, nasal cannula, and a PEEP valve was constructed. The prototype was tested using a Dräger Infant Test Lung to simulate a breathing neonate. The model predicted that neonates with higher peak inspiratory flows risked rebreathing exhaled gas. When compared to the experimental data, it was determined that the model underestimated resistance in the circuit and overestimated the mean pressure delivered to the patient. The prototype effectively delivered a positive pressure to the simulated patient; however, the pressure was not consistent across all experimental conditions. Cannula type, amount of leak, and breathing pattern all impacted the treatment delivered. The Simulink model can be used as a tool to aid in design decisions, but is not highly accurate, and thus does not eliminate the need for practical experimentation. The prototype was a good proof-of-concept and should be investigated further in consultation with clinicians.

Introduction: Over five billion people in mainly low and middle income countries (LMICs) do not have access to safe surgery. This is due to a lack of available and functional medical equipment, where up to 70% of the existing equipment is broken. Some reasons for this shortage in medical equipment are a lack of funding, maintenance, training, educated procurement and infrastructure. To improve access to affordable quality equipment in LMICs, the design of a low cost and high quality Electrosurgical unit (ESU) is suggested. An ESU is an essential operating tool to assist surgeons on various operations. To start the design process, critical design requirements are laid out in this paper based on the properties and thermal performance of three existing devices.Theoretical Background: Electrosurgery is used in various operations to cut and coagulate tissue through high frequency current. By changing the power intensity and waveform of the current, tissue can be heated to different levels. The coagulation of tissue occurs between 60-100°C, while vaporization occurs >100°C. Hazards in electrosurgery include current leakage and the detachment of the return electrode, which can cause burns to the user, staff or patient. Methods: The design requirements were obtained by conducting experiments and comparing three ESUs. Two of the ESUs are regarded as high-end devices, while the third, due to a low price and a simplified design, can be seen as a low-end device. Through a Property Test and a Thermal Camera Test, cut and coagulation modes were tested for each electrosurgical device at different powers and loads. For the Property Test the power, waveforms, crest factor, current and voltage at activation were measured and analysed. To understand the effects of the measured properties, a thermal camera was used to measure the heat map on tofu samples (simulating human tissue) that were exposed to currents from each of the three ESUs.Results: The actual power was measured to be lower than the set power at rated loads for all three ESUs. The wave-shape of all three devices differed considerably, producing a different thermal output on the tofu samples. All devices dropped their power with an increase in load. One ESU exceeded the 100 mA current leakage limit set by standards. In the Thermal Camera Test, high end devices produced temperature values more similar to those expected from literature. Discussion: The most important design requirements to consider include an efficient waveform design and a steady power control. With a small, light weight, and repairable hardware using sterilisable accessories, the ESU would become more transportable, robust, and independent from the manufacturer; therefore also more suitable for a LMICs. A split return electrode and low leakage are important design criteria to prevent any injury to patients and users. Improvements to the study include a wider pool of different ESUs for a better market analysis, using a camera with a higher temperature measurement than 177°C and larger tofu samples for a better thermal analyses.

Safe surgical and anesthetic care is not available to 5 billion people worldwide. Many problems that are encountered when providing surgical care are related to surgical equipment. A lot of surgical equipment is designed for the use in High-Income Countries (HICs) and not specifically for Low-and-Middle Income countries (LMICs). One appliance, used in every operation room worldwide, is an electrosurgical unit (ESU). Electrosurgery is the use of a high-frequency (HF) alternating current (AC) to raise tissue temperature, making it possible to cut and coagulate this tissue. There is a large variety of ESUs available to HICs, but these do not meet the requirements for safe and proper use in LMICs. The Biomedical Engineering department at the TU Delft is currently working on a project to create an ESU for LMICs. This thesis aims to compose a list of requirements for this ESU, design a protocol and test set-up to measure electrosurgical parameters and perform an experiment to measure these electrosurgical parameters.
During the development of the list of requirements, there was a lack in the knowledge about the thermal effects of electrosurgery was found. In order to be able to fill this gap, a testing set-up was created as well as a protocol to perform measurements on electrosurgical units. Throughout the process of designing this set-up different obstacles were found which had to be overcome. These obstacles consisted of the influence of light on thermal camera measurements, the influence of a smoke extractor on thermal measurements in general, measuring simultaneously or separately with a thermal camera and a thermocouple and measuring inside the tofu or on top of the tofu with the thermocouples. Experiments provided data which concluded that light had an effect on the measurements, using the FLIR E75 camera. Therefore these experiments should be performed in the dark. Furthermore, it was found that a smoke extractor affected the surface temperature during measurements, so the smoke extractor should not be used. Other external influences did not seem to influence the measurements drastically.
Taking these factors into account, a testing set-up and protocol are created. This set-up is used to perform experiments comparing two ESUs and comparing different power settings of the ESUs. The result of these experiments show that for the Valleylab Force Fx, higher powers created higher temperatures (starting at
60 Watts). For the ERBE ICC 300, there is no significant difference in maximum temperatures per power settings. There is a large difference between the maximum temperatures of the Valleylab and the ERBE. This is probably because the Valleylab uses a power controlled system and the ERBE uses a voltage controlled system.
In conclusion, the set-up and prototype were validated and can be used to measure electrosurgical
parameters. This information can guide us in making further decisions in the design requirements for the new ESU.