Dutch ports face significant environmental challenges due to high greenhouse gas and air pollutant emissions from berthed ships engaged in essential operations. Entities like the Port of Rotterdam and research institutes produced emission inventories to gain insight into ports' environmental impact. 

However, existing emission inventories rely on fixed factors and overlook berthing duration and activities: they assume the same emission factors regardless of the operations performed by vessels. Thus hindering effective emission reduction strategies and infrastructure development. 

Consequently, the following research studies areas of improvement for the current emission calculation methods by including berthing time patterns. Then, it will apply this information to the Port of Rotterdam to test the new methodology.

The principal result that emerged from this work is that reality is far more complex than the most widely used models to represent it; luckily, the available data can still grasp this complexity. First, not all berthing events are equal, and the rarest ones still hold a considerable impact on the total berthing time. Additionally, the differences do not exist only as a matter of frequency and duration but also imply different energy requirements, as suggested by the interviewed parties. Consequently, a model based on a standard stop only reliably captures part of the behaviour of moored ships. Second, there is no universal relationship between standard industry size classes and time spent in port. Some ship types show a positive linear behaviour (the larger the ship, the longer the visit berthing time), while others show more complex relationships. Moreover, some fleet types belong to only a few classes; therefore, no size-related difference can be observed in the behaviour of berthed vessels. These considerations apply to metrics of volume (GT), maximum transportable weight (DWT), and also cargo capacity (TEU). Consequently, the size classes commonly used in the industry - which reflect the physical limits of channels, ports, and other waterways - might be insufficient to portray the in-port behaviour of all the fleet types. Third, most ships berth at a single location during a port visit, proving that the duration of a port visit could be the only way to identify different types of berthing events. Finally, even the interviews suggested that the system is much more complex than captured by the currently used models. The division by fleet type might be an oversimplification as the product transported and the ship type considerably influence the behaviour in port and energy consumption.

These results contrast with the emission calculation methodologies commonly used in literature and policy documents, indicating a widespread risk of policy and investment failure because partial data and oversimplified models of reality might have driven policy and economic decisions. Thus, institutions may have enacted regulations with potentially inefficient economic, environmental, and social returns. Consequently, improving the system's knowledge is essential for informed decision-making and risk minimization. This research has shown that this objective is not only reachable but could be achievable without exponentially increasing the required data.

The global energy transition is an urgent challenge driven by the need to combat climate change and meet the growing energy demands of an expanding population. As existing energy systems rely heavily on fossil fuels, a rapid shift toward cleaner, more sustainable alternatives is essential. Energy justice ensures that the benefits and burdens of this transition are distributed equitably. However, in the Global South, historical exploitation, economic constraints, and systemic inequalities worsen vulnerability to climate change and hinder progress toward sustainable energy solutions. Much of the current energy justice literature is Western-centric, often overlooking the Global South and focusing on a narrow definition of the concept. Furthermore, while existing studies often concentrate on qualitative analysis, quantitative measures of energy justice are underdeveloped. A robust methodology to quantify inclusive energy justice is essential, as the lack of such an index can hinder effective policy-making for equitable transitions. This thesis employs a mixed-methods approach, combining exploratory research with empirical data from a case study in South Africa, to develop new theoretical insights and a methodology for creating an energy justice index that integrates restorative justice into existing frameworks.

The research begins with a comprehensive review of existing knowledge, including theoretical frameworks and key principles to establish a foundation for further exploration of energy justice. This review focuses on the current state of energy justice, and critically examines the traditional three-tenet framework of distributional, procedural and recognition justice, as well as key decision-making principles. Recent critiques reveal that these frameworks are often too narrow, generalised, human- centred, and Western-centric. In response, this research integrates restorative justice as a key component, focusing on addressing past harms and preventing future damage to individuals, communities, and the environment as a whole. An ethical analysis using both Western and non-Western perspectives has been conducted to develop a more inclusive and diverse framework for energy justice. This approach offers a more holistic view of global ethical values in energy justice by combining the focus on individual rights from Western liberalism with the communitarian and relational values from non-Western philosophies.

In the second research phase, the study examined institutional frameworks and governance structures essential for implementing and scaling up sustainable energy in the Global South. With the ethical dimensions of energy justice thoroughly explored from the first research phase, this part transitions to a practical examination of how these frameworks and structures can support an equitable energy transition. Using the Original Institutional Economics (OIE) approach, this research highlights that achieving a just energy transition requires more than just technological innovation; it requires transformative shifts in institutional structures and cultural norms. The OIE framework provides valuable insights into how values embedded within social, political, economic, and cultural contexts impact the effectiveness of energy transition strategies. Additionally, the study integrates the Williamson framework, incorporating universal human rights law as a key layer. Recognised by international and national courts, this legal foundation strengthens the understanding of how governance structures in the Global South can support justice principles within energy governance.

Building on the ethical and institutional insights, the final research phase develops an inclusive Energy Justice Index that integrates restorative justice principles. This index serves as a comprehensive tool for assessing energy justice across the Global South, evaluating metrics related to past injustices, future compensation, and fairness across generations. Developing an Energy Justice Index is important because it quantifies and operationalises complex justice principles, allowing stakeholders to systematically evaluate, track progress, and address disparities in energy access and policies. It specifically aims to provide a robust framework for guiding energy transition projects by addressing historical disparities and supporting sustainable development. The index is applied in a case study of South Africa, demonstrating its real-world functionality. While the case study shows some progress, it also reveals critical gaps in restorative justice, community engagement, and transparency. Improving these areas is essential for achieving more equitable and effective energy justice outcomes in South Africa. This research is limited by its focus on a single case study in South Africa, which may not fully represent other Global South contexts. Future studies should apply the Energy Justice Index in diverse countries to test its applicability and refine its metrics. Additionally, exploring the impact of local socio- economic factors and human behaviour on energy justice could provide deeper insights and improve the index's effectiveness.

The Dutch electricity grid is facing significant pressure due to increased intermittent renewable energy generation, advancements in electrification and the rise of major electricity users. Transmission capacity has already reached its limit in several regions in the Netherlands. This leads to network congestion, which delays sustainable development in the energy sector and creates an unnecessary rise of electricity prices. Congestion problems exist in multiple EU countries. ACER has proposed the split of several electricity bidding zones in the EU as a solution to mitigate grid congestion. One of these proposed splits is the separation of the electricity bidding zone of the Netherlands into two bidding zones: a northern and a southern bidding zone. This split will separate the northern provinces of Friesland, Groningen, Drenthe and Overijssel from the other provinces in the Netherlands. Splitting large bidding zones into smaller zones could improve market efficiency by providing more accurate price signals. This will theoretically also lead to less congestion in the long term. While research has been conducted on the proposed split of the bidding zone split in Germany, research about a split in the Netherlands and its effects on the Dutch electricity market is lacking. Therefore, this thesis has investigated the following research question: "How will splitting the electricity bidding zone in the Netherlands impact commercial cross-border exchanges and electricity prices in the Day-Ahead market in the Netherlands and its neighboring countries, and what risks does this split cause for energy companies?

To answer this question, a literature review was performed on the bidding zone split of Germany and Austria in 2018, which shows similarities to the proposed Dutch bidding zone split. Furthermore, a model was created with Plexos optimization software to do a nodal analysis of the Netherlands before the split, as well as a scenario analysis of the Netherlands before and after the split. These analyses used a backcast of September 2022 until December 2022. Lastly, the risks for energy companies due to the split were identified. These are the key findings of the research:

1. The neighboring zones next to Germany and Austria suffered from unscheduled flows from Germany. These unscheduled flows form a problem for the Dutch electricity grid as well. The DE-AT split reduced these unscheduled flows but did not achieve all desired effects concerning congestion resolution because of the remaining internal congestion in the German electricity system. The same may be true for the Netherlands and its proposed split.
2. Austria experienced higher electricity prices post-split. Similar consequences are expected of the Netherlands, where the south of the Netherlands will experience higher electricity prices. The north of the Netherlands, which has a relatively low demand and high renewable capacity, will experience reduced prices.
3. The reduction of market liquidity in Austria after the split was only found in long-term contracts, and can be resolved by adapting the terms of these contracts.
4. Nodal prices in the Netherlands in the evaluated period resulted in a distribution of two price groups: high-priced nodes in the west and low-priced nodes in the east of the Netherlands. This difference in nodal prices can be explained by three reasons: the load density in the west, congestion patterns in the high-priced areas, and the geographical positions of fossil power plants.
5. The scenario analysis, which varied inter-zonal commercial transmission capacity between the new Dutch zones and its neighboring zones, found some interesting results. It was observed that an available transmission capacity of 30\% or below creates a significant price difference between the northern and southern NL zone, while above 50\% prices converged. In the scenarios with low available transmission capacity, the northern NL zones reached prices of 0€/MWh. The scenario that is the closest to the predicted after-split situation has price differences between the northern and southern zones. An experiment was executed to investigate the effect of the split on large electricity users, e.g. a large zinc factory with a capacity of 150 MW. In the investigated 4 months, the factory would pay 1.4M€ more for electricity in the southern zone than in the northern zone.
6. Due to the possible price differences in the NL zones, energy companies face risks. It is advised that the current state of their asset portfolio should be assessed based on the location of contracted or owned electricity supply and the location of consumers. By investing in new generation projects in the southern zone, energy generation companies can potentially increase their profits due to the increased electricity prices in the southern zone after the split.

Further research is needed to provide a more exact calculation of the new commercial transmission capacity between the new NL zones and to include the bidding zone split in Germany to capture the full extent of changes in the Dutch bidding zone split. Lastly, a congestion analysis before and after the split can show policymakers and grid operators if congestion has improved and whether a bidding zone split in the Netherlands is worth it.

Underground Pumped Hydro Storage is considered as power storage asset in Zeeland. Using Linny-R, a cost-driven model is made representing the power flows in the high-voltage grid of Zeeland. This model includes power production by nuclear power, fossil power generators, solar PV and windturbines, power demand from industrial companies, agriculture, mobility and dwellings, and the current market functioning using the day-ahead price and marginal costs. Modelling various scenarios, the impact of UPHS on the high-voltage grid is analysed, and discussed in a broader perspective of societal added value.

This thesis explores the development of energy transition personas to inform the development process of energy transition projects in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. The research addresses the challenges of end user acceptance and participation in the transition away from natural gas consumption. By employing grounded theory, an inductive and flexible data collection and analysis methodology, 26 participants (both expert stakeholders and residents of Eindhoven) were interviewed. This methodology yielded three framings that form the context of the energy transition in Eindhoven. 1. The willingness and ability to take action in forming one's energy future is dependent on the time span that is perceived by this individual. 2. Most participants are not concerned with sustainable energy, in that they have minimal knowledge and interest in their energy sources, distribution systems, storage, etc. Most people are more interested in end-of-pipe solutions within their homes that lead to energy efficiency, lowering the energy bill, and changes in consumption behavior. 3. The energy transition is a social transition. The barriers and enablers for the progression of energy developments are mainly financial, communicational, and community-oriented. These theories are used to create the Energy Transition Persona framework, which is a methodology to represent a community's needs, behaviors, mindsets, and resources. This framework is applied in the empirical context of Eindhoven, which yielded six personas divided into age, housing status, and general attitude, ranging from young adults to elderly people and from homeowners to renters. All in all, this research provides insights into how to represent users' values, lifestyles, and preferences. The study gives direction to various academic and empirical research agendas, as well as guidelines on how to bring the Energy Transition Persona framework into practice to enhance customer journeys, participation strategies, and a better alignment between technologies and their users.

This master's thesis explores the role of policy innovation of policies, programs, and policy instruments within the domain of heat transition in the built environment in the Netherlands, focusing specifically on the role of municipalities in navigating this complex transition towards a natural gas-free future by 2050, as mandated by the National Climate Agreement (2019).

Introduction
The research starts by outlining the ambitious goal of the Dutch government to significantly reduce CO2 emissions by 2050, emphasizing the critical target of reducing natural gas usage in the built environment in the Netherlands. The introduction highlights the urgent need for innovative policy approaches to accelerate the heat transition, especially in light of geopolitical factors such as the crisis in Ukraine, which underscore the urgency of energy independence.

Theory
Starting with a literature review regarding the different conceptual defnitions of (policy) innovation and the framework provided by Schaffrin et al. (2015), the study delves into the concept of policy innovation, exploring its significance in the context of the heat transition in the built environment. The research identifies the multifaceted nature of innovation, encompassing the novelty of policies, their adoption, and eventual impact. The theoretical foundation emphasizes the importance of analyzing policy output to gauge the extent of innovation within municipalities' strategies for the heat transition.

Methodology
An exploratory study design using qualitative research methods is outlined, focusing on a case study analysis of Transition Vision Heat (TVH) documents from ten of the most populous municipalities in the Netherlands. The research adapts and modifies Schaffrin et al.'s (2015) framework to assess policy output and innovation to fit the context of the heat transition in the built environment in the Netherlands, employing Atlas.ti software for document analysis. The methodology section discusses the selection criteria, data collection, and analysis processes, highlighting the study's systematic approach to evaluating policy documents.

Results
The results section presents a detailed analysis of policy output across eight categories, revealing a spectrum of innovation levels among the analyzed municipalities. Amsterdam is noted for its high scores in integration, target groups, and alternative technologies, showcasing a proactive approach to the heat transition. Furthermore, TVHs were scored using the modified framework of Schaffrin et al (2015). This research identifies significant differences in policy integration, stakeholder involvement, and the specificity of alternative solutions across municipalities. Despite these differences, commonalities include a shared commitment to updating the TVH every five years and aiming for a gas-free environment by 2050.

Conclusion
The thesis concludes that while Dutch municipalities exhibit a range of innovative strategies in their approach to the heat transition, there is room for improvement, particularly in setting concrete targets and detailed implementation procedures. The study advocates for municipalities to take a more directive role in leading the heat transition, emphasizing the need for tailored and innovative solutions that reflect local contexts. The research suggests that a comprehensive, collaborative, and context-specific approach is essential for successfully navigating the complexities of the heat transition toward a sustainable, natural gas-free built environment in the Netherlands.

Discussion
The discussion emphasizes the scientific added value of adapting Schaffrin et al.'s (2015) framework to the context of the heat transition in the built environment, underlining the importance of scope on alternate technology solutions and the target groups involved. Limitations such as the subjective nature of measuring policy innovation and the representativeness of the sample size are acknowledged. The section also suggests the need for future research to include broader samples and expert validation to enhance the framework's reliability. Furthermore, the role of local initiatives and the inclusion of residents' opinions and viewpoints in TVHs are emphasized as crucial for developing tailored, context-specific policy solutions. The involvement of residents (e.g., in the form of communities) can contribute to a more appropriate approach that contributes to the advancement of the heat transition in the built environment in the Netherlands.

The absence of a liquid market for renewable hydrogen causes uncertainty in the revenue stream for early water electrolysis facilities in the Netherlands, and a highly volatile day-ahead market causes uncertainty in production costs.

The EU is promoting renewable hydrogen projects to engage in bilateral contracts to mitigate these uncertainties. Hydrogen Purchase Agreements (HPA) can be used to secure an offtaker and a price, reducing demand and price uncertainty. While a Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) secures a renewable power supply and mitigates price uncertainty, the inherent volume uncertainty of renewable energy sources (RES) remains a significant challenge.

This challenge is exacerbated by the requirement of most offtakers to be supplied with a consistent baseload volume. The hydrogen producer is thus tasked with creating a consistent supply of hydrogen out of an intermittent supply of renewable power and takes on the volume risk of renewable power. It is not yet clear how this and other offtake requirements affect the production cost of hydrogen.

The main question of this thesis was: "How are the hydrogen production costs under a long-term hydrogen purchase agreement affected by the offtake volume, offtake profile, the availability of hydrogen storage, and the type and size of the RES portfolio?"

This thesis utilizes mathematical optimization to quantify the impact of these offtake requirements on the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH). The dispatch of the electrolyzer and the operation of the storage is the central decision in the model. Through a case study, the sensitivity of the LCOH with respect to the offtake volume, the size of the RES portfolio, and the size of the storage is determined.

The results show that the LCOH increases by 11–28% if a baseload profile is required and no hydrogen storage is available. Access to an optimal amount of hydrogen storage reduces the extra costs to 2–8%. To achieve the maximum benefit from hydrogen storage, the outflow capacity should be larger than the baseload volume so that the storage can accommodate the entire demand at times when power prices are high. Our results also show that with the current investment costs, the utilization factor plays a significant role in the final LCOH, with a utilization factor of 90% leading to the lowest overall LCOH, even though the average power price at this point is much higher than at lower utilization factors.

Future research could explore different project ownership structures for electrolyzer facilities and quantify the difference in costs. Alternatively, a complete risk analysis using Monte Carlo simulations could be performed. The addition of a more dynamic market model would also enhance the value of the analysis, as would the inclusion of more markets, such as intraday and balancing. Future studies could also assess the impact of linepack flexibility services in hydrogen pipelines on the need for storage.

This project aims to identify how to improve the inclusion of social values within the decision-making process of the city management department of the municipality of Rotterdam. The project was conducted in collaboration with the municipality and, specifically, their value wheel development team. The "value wheel" is a value-based decision-making tool, which aims for projects to be selected based on total value contributions instead of financial risks. The idea behind this model is that all values are considered on an equal basis within the decision-making process of asset management. The issue, however, is that the development team is still unable to quantify social impact, which makes that the value wheel model cannot consider social values at an equal rate as the other values of the value wheel.

Although the model is already being put into practice, social values still find no place within the decision-making process. The Rotterdam municipality currently does not have another established method to address social values, which makes that within the organisation, social values are often overlooked or misinterpreted. The literature indicates that various social impact measurement models exist. However, they all require a list of social value indicators designed for the context in which the models operate. This means for them to be used within the value wheel framework, social value considerations and indicators are required. Through participatory observations and interviews, officials of the municipality were asked to identify the social values present within the municipality. To include the value considerations of citizens, a text-mining model, which is trained to identify values, was applied to the complaint database of the municipality.

Next to the identification of social values did the project also explore possible barriers to the inclusion of a value-based framework within the municipality. Which is why the participatory sessions and the interviews were also used to identify the context in which the value wheel is intended to be implemented. To identify the issues of the value wheel framework itself, the sessions of the value development team were followed closely and a pilot case of the value wheel was attended.

Coding was applied on the collected dataset due to the various types of data collected. This resulted in the identification of eight main themes influencing the inclusion of social values within the decision-making process. These themes are: social values experienced by officials, social values experienced by the public, the value wheel, civil participation, trust, compartmentalisation, leadership within the municipality and standardisation. The thematic analyses of these themes indicate that there are both theoretical restrictions and practical issues that prevent the implementation of social values.

Moreover, by placing quantified social values within a model, officials are confronted with technical quantities instead of public desires. This causes the actual value considerations to get lost within the decision-making process. Issues with trust, participation, leadership, and compartmentalisation show that officials are already faced with a growing gap between the reality on the streets and the situation as officials perceive it in the office. Quantifying social values within a model only strengthens this gap, instead of ensuring that actual social value considerations are included.

The results of this project can help municipalities, but also other governmental bodies, to identify the restrictions that currently prevent social value considerations from being included in the decision-making process. With that information, steps can be taken to improve the inclusion and consideration of social values when new projects are developed.

The urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has placed significant pressure on municipalities to decarbonise the residential heating sector, a major contributor to energy consumption and emissions. Municipalities face the complex challenge of navigating numerous factors to implement sustainable heating solutions that are technically feasible, economically viable, environmentally friendly, and socially accepted. This thesis addresses this challenge by developing a multidimensional assessment framework and decision-making support tool that acts as a compass, guiding municipalities toward tailored, neighbourhood-specific heat transition strategies. The framework integrates spatial, technical, economic, environmental, social, and regulatory factors to assess and compare sustainable heating technologies at both household and neighbourhood levels.

The primary objective of this research is to determine how sustainable residential heating solutions can be assessed using a multidimensional framework to develop tailored, neighbourhood-specific heat transition strategies for both households and municipalities...

Introduction

As a result of the Paris Agreement, the Netherlands committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 49\% compared to 1990 levels. A significant challenge in achieving this goal lies in the heating sector, which is heavily dependent on natural gas and must transition to sustainable alternatives. However, uncertainties around the viability of sustainable heat technologies, unprofitable business cases and low public trust in existing institutions pose challenges to this transition. A promising development is the rise of local communities establishing self-organized sustainable heat initiatives, known as Thermal Energy Communities (TECs), which emphasize community control. However, after a strong increase in the number of TEC-led projects in 2018, the number of projects has stagnated in 2021 and 2022 and declined since early 2023. Several factors contribute to this decline, including knowledge gaps within TECs regarding their professionalization, inexperience in civil-public collaborations between TECs and municipalities, and a misalignment between the current institutional set-up in the Netherlands and the desire for local ownership of collective heat systems.

Research Objective and Question

To fully integrate TECs in the Dutch heat transition, four preconditions including \textit{knowledge}, \textit{support}, \textit{access to capital}, and \textit{a license to operate} are to be developed. This thesis focuses on the \textit{knowledge} and supports \textit{preconditions}, aiming to understand how TECs manage the value controversies inherent to local energy projects by initiating social learning to overcome them. To guide

"How have value controversies in the professionalisation of TECs with complete control and ownership in the Netherlands initiated social learning?"

Gaining a better understanding of this dynamic will contribute to the self-actualisation capacity of TECs, increasing the number that become operational and enabling further research into their development.

Research Approach and Methods

To guide the research a conceptual framework is constructed combining the Value Laden Institutional Analysis and Development (VLIAD) framework by Milchram et al. (2019) with Schram et al.'s (2024) value-based approach. The constructed conceptual model structures the analysis of the relation between value controversies and social learning while accounting for the context specificity inherent in energy projects. The research takes a qualitative comparative case study approach and starts with analyzing how exogenous variables influence decision-making processes, using document analysis of TEC reports and demographic data. Consequently, a taxonomy of values present in TEC projects is constructed and dynamics behind how value controversies triggering social learning are explored, drawing on media articles, community meetings, and surveys. The analysis uses Atlas.ti as an analysis tool. Finally, expert interviews were conducted to validate and refine findings across the cases.

Key Findings and Conclusion

The study found that value controversies initiate social learning by highlighting mismatches between TEC decision-making structures and community expectations, as well as governmental regulations.

Single-loop learning occurs when TECs address immediate issues without challenging underlying assumptions, often due to regulatory constraints. Double-loop learning arises from community engagement and a flexible attitude towards the existing institutional framework by the project group. This was emphasised by Warm Heeg's ongoing community communication and responsiveness. Projects like Energiek Nagele, with limited community involvement, miss out on social learning opportunities, due to insufficient community support.

In conclusion, TECs that remain flexible and prioritise community engagement over fast project development leverage the opportunities for double-loop learning presented through value controversies, enhancing their adaptability and develop organisational resilience.

Recommendations

This thesis finds that during the development of TECs, they should focus on remaining flexible during the early project stages, avoiding establishing rigid rules and regulations. Additionally, TECs should prioritise frequent communication with residents, emphasizing broader environmental benefits at the start of the project while gradually shifting towards more personal benefits as the project progresses. Further research should further investigate the relationships between energy poverty and social capital on the ability of TECs to adapt to encountered controversies. Additionally, further examining the impulses stemming from specific values of the population involved in the project, seems an interesting and important avenue as it impacts creating and maintaining support of the community which is identified as the most important factor for success in this thesis.

The purpose of this report is to investigate how Dutch thermal energy communities can successfully transition from grassroots initiatives to formal thermal energy organisations. The study explores the knowledge and values required by community boards to achieve this transformation, focussing on how they address internal knowledge gaps and collaborate with external stakeholders. Key areas of inquiry include the types of knowledge needed, how the board ensures community members understand the social, environmental, and economic impacts of thermal energy, and the role of partnerships in advancing these initiatives. The findings aim to provide insights that can support scalable implementations in the Netherlands and Europe.

The theoretical framework of this report is based on the 3C model, which builds on Amartya Sen’s capability approach. This model emphasises three key capabilities: conscientiality, conciliation, and collaboration, which are necessary for the successful transition of thermal energy community initiatives into formal organisations. Conscientiousness involves raising critical awareness within communities about their energy needs and environmental impacts. Conciliation focusses on the building of consensus among stakeholders, while collaboration emphasises partnerships with ex- ternal actors, such as municipalities and energy companies, to access resources and expertise.
The research methodology combines a qualitative approach with thematic analysis. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with key members of five energy cooperatives to gather insights into community dynamics, knowledge sharing and values. These interviews were supported by an anal- ysis of existing literature and two additional interviews. The data collected was analysed using a systematic coding process, grouped into themes aligned with the research questions and the the- oretical framework to identify patterns and insights related to the development of thermal energy communities. This methodology ensures both reliability and validity in capturing the challenges and successes of grassroots energy initiatives.

The key findings of the report highlight several important aspects of thermal energy initiatives in the Netherlands. First, these initiatives require diverse knowledge, including financial, technical, and organisational expertise, which can be sourced both locally and externally. Partnerships with pro- fessional entities are crucial to fill knowledge gaps, especially in the legal, technical, and financial areas. Community involvement is essential for the success of these initiatives. Trust and familiarity within the community are critical to convincing residents to adopt sustainable heating solutions, es- pecially when costs are comparable to traditional heating options. Personal interactions, such as one-on-one conversations, were found to be the most effective way of sharing information and gain- ing community trust. Collaboration with external stakeholders, especially local governments, is also vital. The success of these initiatives often hinges on their relationship with the local government, which is involved in the funding, approvals, and overall support of the project. However, challenges such as differing work paces and ownership questions can slowly progress. These insights provide a clear understanding of the dynamics and hurdles faced by thermal energy communities in the Netherlands.

The study found that knowledge and trust are critical factors in the success of thermal energy com- munities transitioning to formal organisations. Boards rely on a mix of local expertise and external consulting for specialised knowledge, with local involvement fostering trust among residents. Per- sonal involvement, such as door-to-door communication, is essential to gain support. In addition, collaboration with external partners, particularly local governments, plays a key role in the practical implementation of projects. Challenges such as ownership and the varied cooperation of municipali- ties have emerged as significant hurdles. The study suggests that the ability of the board to manage knowledge, build trust, and collaborate effectively determines the success of these initiatives.

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is endowed with vast reserves of cobalt, a metal playing a very substantial role in the global energy transition. As the world shifts towards sustainable energy solutions, particularly through the electrification of transport, the demand for key minerals like cobalt and lithium is rising. This presents a unique opportunity for the DRC to elevate its position within the global battery value chain (GBVC). However, despite its rich mineral resources, the DRC’s current role remains limited primarily to raw material exports, leaving significant space for growth in high value-added activities.

This thesis explores the research question: “Can the DRC leverage its abundant cobalt resources to upgrade in the battery value chain?”. The study aims to bridge the knowledge gap by assessing the potential of the country to upgrade within the chain. This is done by identifying challenges that the DRC faces and exploring opportunities for upgrading within the value chain.

The research is structured around several sub-research questions that examine the global landscape and governance of the battery value chain, the DRC's current integration, and both the challenges and opportunities for future upgrading. The primary analytical tool employed is the Global Value Chain (GVC) framework, which provides a structured methodology to assess the complex network between the companies and the economic activities that are executed throughout the world. By applying this framework, the study identifies where value is created within the battery value chain and how the DRC can move towards higher-value activities.

In summary, the opportunity identified for the DRC is in the upstream sector of the battery value chain and more particularly in the refining stage. Nevertheless, the outcome is not encouraging for the DRC due to substantial barriers that the country must overcome. The country faces deficits in infrastructure, especially in energy and transportation systems, which rise operational expenditures. This in conjunction with the political instability has a negative implication on the attractiveness of the DRC as an investment environment, so country ‘s progress is hindered. Furthermore, the limited control that local institutions have over cobalt mines does not give the chance to the DRC to take strategic decisions that are beneficial for the development of country ‘s capabilities. In addition, transparency and human rights problems within the mining sector make investors more reluctant due to the need in the market for compliance with international ESG standards.

Substantial improvements in the DRC ‘s investment environment are necessary to strengthen country ‘s position in the global battery industry, so some recommendations for both government policies and corporate strategies are made. Local institutions should build more strategic collaborations with companies in other countries of African Union that have the capacity to support refining activities. At the same time, they must increase their awareness for international standards and start applying them in order to become more trusted partners globally. Policy recommendations from the government are also essential , including financial incentives for foreign investors and improvements in the judicial system. In this way, the DRC can create a more competitive environment in the refining segment of battery value chain and may have more chances for upgrading.

Research Objective & Methodology
The COVID-19 supply disruptions and the energy crisis triggered by the Russian-Ukrainian conflict emphasize the EU's structural supply dependencies and potential damages during crises. It underscores the critical risk factors, particularly Rare Earth Elements (REEs), which are highly susceptible to supply disturbances due to their increasing demand, limited supply, and reliance on a few suppliers, notably China. REEs are contrary to their name quite abundant, however, their extraction and processing are environmentally intensive, complex, and expensive. These REEs are utilized in numerous applications, including applications used in the energy transition because they exist in the Neodymium-Iron-Boron permanent magnets (Nd-Fe-B PMs). These magnets are used in wind turbine generators and traction motors of EVs. In these technologies, magnets are necessary to convert electricity into kinetic energy in EVs and vice versa for wind turbines.

This thesis focused on understanding how the EU can bolster its autonomy regarding its access to REEs, counterbalance supply risks, examine existing strategies, evaluate their effectiveness, and identify additional institutional interventions to strengthen the EU's position. This led to the following main research question:

How can the European Union improve its autonomy regarding its access to rare earth elements to achieve material security in the context of the European Union's energy transition?

The qualitative approach was chosen as the most suitable design approach to answering this main research question. It enabled a nuanced understanding of the EU's REE dependency issue by considering multiple dimensions and facilitated the development of well-informed and contextually grounded institutional interventions. The findings are triangulated between a literature review, desk research, and semi-structured depth-interviews with seven experts in this field.

This study performed REE value chains, actors, institutions, and PESTEL factor analyses. These four analyses offered a multifaceted insight into the complexities and interactions within this domain. Moreover, the illumination of various perspectives enhanced the overall comprehensiveness and facilitated a more holistic view of the EU's quest for enhanced REE autonomy.

Findings
Regarding the global REE value chain, China's unparalleled dominance, facilitated by generous lines of credits and subsidies, strategic partnerships and initiatives, geopolitical influence, manufacturing capabilities, technology, infrastructure, low labor cost, and lax environmental regulations, presents significant challenges. China's extensive control, especially in REE processing and Nd-Fe-B PM manufacturing, underscores the complex global dependence on China’s REE industry. The critical issues identified include a single third country supply dependency, rising demand for Nd-Fe-B PMs, challenges in recycling and circularity, high cost, stringent environmental regulations, and the need for skilled labor. These concerns, especially during the processing stage, underscore the complex barriers to achieving a resilient REE supply chain.

Globally, the REE landscape is predominantly shaped by China and the US. China maintains its pre-eminence through strategic initiatives, while the US is actively trying to close the gap. Acknowledging the imperative of strategic autonomy, the EU has instituted ambitious regulations, exemplified by the Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) and the Net-Zero Industry Act. These regulations established industry benchmarks for domestic extraction, processing, and recycling. However, the effectiveness of the CRMA in ensuring robust REE supply security is questionable.
 
The legislation lacks clarity on achieving and implementing industry benchmarks, presenting significant challenges in compliance, environmental and societal impacts, navigating shortened lead times for permitting, and addressing hurdles in private investment and fiscal alignment.

Institutional Interventions
This research identified enabling and constraining factors for the EU's autonomy regarding REE. Whereafter institutional interventions were created to cope with these issues. To achieve enhanced autonomy regarding REE access, five main strategies and several interventions are suggested. Conclusively, it is vital to note that the approach here is not a binary choice between strategies; rather, it necessitates the integration of a synergistic blend of the five proposed strategies.

Firstly, ‘Supply Diversification’ addresses the introduction of incentives for private demand for diversification, and the enhancement of strategic partnerships with REE-rich, EU-friendly countries.

Secondly, ‘Domestic Supply’ discusses: regulations incentivizing internal capacity; levelling the playing field; including Nd-Fe-B PM domestic manufacturing benchmarks; raising public acceptance; expanding funding; standardizing long-term contracts; and introducing low-energy zones.

Thirdly, ‘Circularity’ Encourages Nd-Fe-B PM demand reduction; incentivizes EoL practices; establishes CRMA PM labeling requirements; sets Nd-Fe-B PM collection targets; provides incentive structures; standardizes circularity by design; introduces extended producer responsibility; expands support programs; and impose an export ban on EoL Nd-Fe-B PMs.

Fourthly, ‘Substitutes for Nd-Fe-B PMs’ proposes: an increase in funding for R&D and innovation; and incentivizes substitutes for EV and wind turbine applications.

Fifthly, ‘Strategic Stockpiling’: addresses deficiencies in communication, transparency, and clarity by investigating obligation possibilities for Member States to monitor and strategically stock Nd-Fe-B PMs

Furthermore, the European Commission is instructed to consider introducing sub-benchmarks per individual CRM, improving understanding within governmental entities, increasing overall investment, and acknowledging the criticality for the EU to extend its policy horizon beyond 2030, given the long-term impacts of most proposed options. Moreover, EU policy alignment between Member States is critical, especially for creating an EU-level playing field for internal capacity and circularity. Enhancing autonomy in the realm of Rare Earth Elements (REEs) poses significant challenges, yet this thesis equips policymakers with essential findings and tools to navigate and improve access to REEs.

The energy transition involves a complex societal transformation encompassing changes in production, distribution, consumption, and behaviour. It necessitates collaboration among private and public stakeholders as well as the adoption of technical and non-technical innovations to combat climate change. While new technologies are being developed, progress towards a low-carbon energy system is slow due to technological, economic, and political barriers. The energy transition affects all systems interconnected with energy, such as transportation, housing, and spatial planning. Stakeholder involvement is crucial to connect these systems in policy but coordination and consensus are lacking, leading to paralysis and a lack of progress. Existing literature, focusing on innovation and technological barriers, lacks a comprehensive systems perspective. Traditional frameworks for change and transition in such complex systems often assume a rational and manageable system, overlooking the interconnectedness and interdependence of individual elements and their influence on the overall system, as well as the thorough interconnection with the political domain. They are built on the assumption that there is a (sub)system subject to transition and there is consensus on what the goal is. In the energy transition, neither is often the case and thus these traditional approaches to governing transitions have resulted in incoherent policy. This thesis utilises an abductive approach to identify design principles for transitions and their overarching themes to guide the energy transition. This method is exploratory in nature and uses empirical data in the form of case studies to develop new theoretical insights.

Over the last 30 years, different technical and governmental developments have taken place in the Dutch hazardous materials pipeline infrastructure. These have changed the utilization and governance of the system, with the transport of natural gas being one of the most important during this timeframe. Due to the danger of the transported material, the integrity of the system is crucial for its operation and performance. But with trends like liberalization, aging, and the energy transition, it raises the question whether this integrity is maintained. Also with many researchers analyzing either technical or governmental development, the combination has not yet been studied. The following main research question was formulated: What insights do we take when reflecting on the influence of technical and institutional developments on the integrity of the natural gas system in the Netherlands?
With the combination of desk research, interviews, and content analysis, the alignment between the technical and the governmental developments will be analyzed with the alignment perspective of Künneke, Groenewegen & Mènard. This information is then used to see if possible misalignments correspond to integrity perspective changes and issues of the infrastructure. Resulting eventually in insights into possible institutional or regulation deviations from what the system needed at that point in time.

The decarbonization of the energy system is driven by the electrification process and the expansion of variable renewable energy capacity. Green hydrogen, produced through electrolysis powered with renewable electricity, represents a major complementary vector that can support this transition. By enabling long-term storage, it addresses the challenges arising from the unpredictability of a renewable energy-based electricity system. It represents a backup and increases the reliability of the electricity system.

In an interconnected decarbonized system where energy carriers are interdependent, new sector-coupling dynamics emerge. Energy-only markets, in theory, yield socially optimal levels of installed capacity across both sectors assuming rational participants and perfect markets. However, risk-averse behaviour among market participants might lead to underinvestment in generation capacity, undermining the efficacy of hydrogen backup.

The main objective of this research is to assess the adequacy of market designs in attracting socially optimal levels of investment in electrolyzers and storage capacity within a decarbonized and integrated system with risk-averse agents.

The stylized stochastic equilibrium model formulated is solved by using the Alternating Direction Method of Multipliers algorithm. Participants formulate their strategy based only on market prices, which are influenced by 18 scenarios that differ in terms of electricity demand, hydrogen demand and variable renewable energy sources availability. The demand for electricity and hydrogen is considered price-elastic.

An energy-only market, an energy market supported by a capacity market for electricity generators, and an energy market supported by capacity markets for both electricity and hydrogen generators are tested under different degrees of risk aversion.

The analysis confirms how risk aversion, by increasing the risk premium required, entails a reduction in installed capacity. Underinvestment is combined with a general reduction in the served energy and an increase in energy prices and frequency of periods of high prices. These trends are more considerable in the hydrogen market, where agents are exposed to risk from the uncertainties in both hydrogen demand and electricity prices.

The energy-only market is more sensitive to the impact of risk aversion due to the absence of risk trading opportunities. In this case, the increase in energy prices is the only solution to recover the risk premium.
Introducing a capacity market for dispatchable electricity generators mitigates the impact of risk aversion in the electricity sector. However, this exacerbates performance issues in the hydrogen market during scarcity periods by amplifying hydrogen price fluctuations. On the other hand, incorporating a capacity market for hydrogen counteracts the effects of risk aversion on the hydrogen sector. This dual approach not only benefits the hydrogen sector but further improves the electricity sector’s adequacy and reduces consumer costs.

Capacity markets are an effective instrument to hedge risk, but their application in an integrated system has to be consistent and include both electricity and hydrogen generation capacity. Furthermore, the strong dependence of hydrogen generation on electricity prices advocates for a direct instrument to hedge risk for renewable generators such as contracts for difference, as an adequate vRES capacity improves the whole system’s performance by reducing hydrogen prices and increasing its availability.

Integrating renewables in the electricity system in a cost-efficient way requires massive transmission system investments and the efficient use of available transmission capacity. Markets are pivotal in the latter, especially in coordinating flows between countries. In the European Union, flow-based market coupling (FBMC) arose as the preferred market-based cross-border capacity allocation method, which has recently been extended to the CORE region, involving 12 countries of the EU. While the expansion of the flow-based methodology brings the EU closer to a single internal electricity market, its complexity and scale hinders analytical efforts of market participants, system operators and regulators. They conduct analysis to obtain insights into price formation, to enhance coordination as well as a more efficient use of assets. The limited and fragmented data available on flow-based domain strategies of TSOs and cost structures of participants obstructs the analysis.

This thesis attempts to bridge the gap between stylized academic models on FBMC and real-world market outcomes, to be able to reason about operational day-ahead markets via these simplified models. To this end, a multi-step modelling process is carried out to forecast day-ahead zonal market prices and cross-border flows. Inverse optimisation is utilised to recover cost functions on a bidding zone and technology level. This is followed by a spatial reconstruction of the static grid, which is subsequently used to infer the flow-based domain based on historical observations. The model-based approach has the added benefit of being interpretable, and can be adjusted for structural and regulatory market changes.

Inverse optimisation has proven to be able to recover aggregated technology cost functions with which real-world market outcomes can be forecasted in a tractable way. The model developed in this work is shown to outperform a commercially available, machine-learning-based algorithm in forecasting day-ahead prices. The limitations of reconstructing flow-based domains using publicly available flowbased market data are identified. Analysis concludes that while the ability to recover cross-border flows is sensitive to the shape and size of the inferred domains, the performance of price forecasts is robust against the quality of domain inference. The delivered work is argued to yield valuable insights to both market participants optimising their assets, and regulators structurally assessing the effects of flow-based domain configurations on welfare outcomes of real-world day-ahead markets.

Climate change is a very urgent issue for our society. The European Union’s commitment is increasing, as evidenced by the Paris Agreement, and individual nations are also developing strategies to become emission-free within the next few years. This has renewed interest in hydrogen, particularly that produced through electrolysis, as a complement to electrification and as a means to achieve broad economic decarbonisation. Nevertheless, the deployment of green hydrogen faces a significant challenge known as the "chicken-and-egg" threefold coordination problem, which creates a vicious cycle wherein hydrogen supply, demand, and infrastructure developments hinder one another, impeding the formation of a complete value chain. This challenge raises the possibility that only blue hydrogen will be deployed in the medium term. To this end, the main research question we want to address is, “How do hydrogen uncertainties impact the penetration of green hydrogen infrastructure in the 2030 Dutch integrated energy system?”. To answer this main question, we used an exploratory modelling approach applied to the integrated energy system of the Netherlands utilising the Calliope multi-scale energy systems modelling framework. The outcomes of our research encompass various scenarios that pertain to the future integrated energy system of the Netherlands. We devised to examine the impacts of hydrogen uncertainties and specific policies on the integration of green hydrogen infrastructure within the energy system under investigation. Specifically, we formulated these scenarios to account for fluctuations in hydrogen demand, variations in electrolyser capital costs, and the enforcement of a robust policy aimed at prohibiting blue hydrogen production by 2030. The findings derived from the scenario analysis indicate that the realisation of a transition at a sufficient pace to meet the energy objectives set for 2030 can be accomplished through the implementation of robust policies, such as the medium-term ban on blue hydrogen production. Moreover, the study reveals that policies directed towards reducing electrolyser capital costs, as opposed to policies solely focused on stimulating higher hydrogen demand, prove to be more effective in facilitating a swift transition.

Achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement requires a significant transformation of current energy systems. The energy sector has hundreds of technologies and millions of actors working together to balance the system. Researchers are using computer-based models to understand the techno-economic impacts on the energy system due to changes in one or more energy system components. Modelling to generate alternative (MGA) is an energy system optimization method which generates hundreds of equally possible near-optimal energy system configurations. From the point of view of an analyst, it becomes difficult to provide in-depth analysis for future action due to the sheer amount of data generated by the MGA optimization method. In other words, while analyzing the results of the MGA-based model, one of its strengths becomes its weakness.

This thesis aims to design a clustering-based analysis method and Python package (MGA analysis package) based on the designed method to analyze the results of the MGA based optimization model using machine learning algorithms. The package is developed for energy analysts and users of the MGA optimization method to simplify the analysis of results. MGA analysis package clusters the solution space and identifies representative solutions for each cluster. Along with that, it provides a regional equality index to assess the distribution of energy infrastructure. An interactive dashboard is designed to use the MGA analysis package with three to four user inputs and provides information graphically and in text format. The MGA analysis package is hosted on the git-hub (https://edu.nl/gmarp) for applications and further development.

The energy transition is gaining momentum in the Netherlands, but not without consequences. Due to energy grid congestion, developments are on hold as they cannot be connected to the energy grid due to limited capacity. The ACM has revised electricity grid regulations to optimize grid efficiency, which increased the risk of congestion during peak load. This can be mitigated by using congestion management and battery energy storage (BES) can be the solution by storing surplus energy during peak periods and releasing it during periods of sufficient grid capacity, presenting an opportunity for Statkraft.

This study analyses the effect of using battery energy storage systems for congestion management on the overall business case. The interactions between the battery and the energy markets is simulated using model predictive control. The business model of the battery consist of energy arbitrage and value stacking i.e. trading on multiple markets in order to generate revenue. This model uses real market data of four identified markets, aFRR, FCR, intraday and day ahead. The results of the BES simulation are used to build a business case for BES. The business case is comprised of a economic assessment, risk assessment and a sensitivity analysis. The business case for battery energy storage is positive and through research and modelling it can be concluded that the congestion management market is beneficial to the business case of the BES.

Keywords: battery energy storage (BES), congestion management, simulation, model predictive control (MPC), business case.