The support for controversial policies in the area of transport often increases after real-world implementation. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive overview of the literature surrounding the implementation of controversial policies in transport, particularly in the context of road pricing. We then discuss various theories and mechanisms that contribute to an increase in support for such policies after real-world implementation. One significant factor is a change in attitude towards a policy. However, there are also other important factors, for example the utility experienced by people is not necessarily the same as the expected utility. In addition, people may be loss-averse relative to their reference point (often: their current situation). The disadvantages of a policy considered for implementation may be clearer than the advantages. Other factors discussed are the effect of the expected distribution of gains and losses, their magnitude, and perceptions of the processes being fair and competent. We then examine the implications of increased support after implementation, important lessons being that policymakers can anticipate growing support after implementation and that communication is key in the process of deciding on a controversial policy. In this regard, we propose that having a champion, or visionary, can be particularly effective in getting controversial policies accepted. Finally, we suggest avenues for future research.@en

Neighbourhood mobility hubs may play an important role in mitigating the impact of passenger cars on climate change and urban public space. As a relatively new concept, academic research on the user potential of neighbourhood mobility hubs is so far limited. This research aims to identify which user groups are likely to adopt services offered by a neighbourhood mobility hub. A survey was distributed in the Netherlands (N=298), an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) executed and a Latent Class Cluster Analysis (LCCA) estimated. Four distinctive groups of intended users are uncovered. Two of the clusters have intentions to use neighbourhood mobility hubs. Two other clusters do not (yet) intend to use neighbourhood mobility hubs. The clusters indicate that people who currently already travel more by sustainable modes (train or (e-)bicycle) are more likely to be adopters of neighbourhood mobility hubs than the traditional car users. In practice, this may limit the positive effect of hubs or even increase car use. However it could also facilitate those travelling sustainably to do so for longer as additional shared modes become available to them via hubs. Limitations and directions for further research are discussed.

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This extensively updated textbook introduces the transport system and its societal impacts in a holistic and multidisciplinary way. A timely second edition, it includes new analyses of travel behaviour and the transport system’s impacts on health and well-being.@en

The decarbonization of freight transport is currently a big challenge to tackle. One way of decarbonizing the sector is the modal shift towards the least polluting transport modes. This research aims to shed light on modal shift time dynamics in developing economies and considers whether a System Dynamics approach can assist with the policy-making decision about a modal shift towards freight decarbonization. This research explores policies that promote the modal shift of freight transportation for a Brazilian case study, using a System Dynamics model. Policies include fiscal and regulatory measures and infrastructure investments. The findings show that the process of modal shift is slow. However, implementing a combination of stricter policy measures early on, and changes in infrastructure investment strategies, accelerate the shift and this seems to be a robust measure package, capable of promoting a modal shift and decarbonizing the system. The model used highlighted how the system tends to adjust to modal shift measures, which tend to lose efficiency over time, slowing down the pace of decarbonization. Findings also display how modal shift policies alone might not be sufficient to achieve a reduction in CO2 emission. Addressing the problem with a System Dynamics approach may help decision-makers in economically developing countries to develop more effective policy strategies.@en

High-speed rail (HSR) is frequently seen as a promising alternative for long-distance travel by air and road, given its environmental advantages whilst offering a competitive level of service. However, a European HSR-network is yet to be realised, with the current state amounting to a patchwork of poorly connected subnetworks. Consequently, this results in a suboptimal performance from a user, operator and societal perspective. We present a customised version of the Transit Network Design and Frequency Setting Problem (TNDFSP) for the long-distance transport context and HSR in particular. We apply an adapted version of a heuristic solution approach to analyse the users’, operators’ and societal performance of a European HSR-network by conducting an extensive series of experiments to test the network's performance under various policy priorities and HSR design variables. Our experiment results show that designs resulting from the consideration of externalities yield more extensive networks with larger coverage and modal shifts. For such networks to materialise, high public investments are needed. The obtained network designs contain four different line types, exhibit spatial disparities in network density, and allow for the identification of potential hubs and critical infrastructure. The strong network integration with overlapping and border-crossing lines of substantial lengths highlights the importance of cross-border cooperation and rail interoperability. We hope our findings will contribute to the ongoing public and professional debates on designing an attractive and competitive European HSR-network.

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A restructuring of the current mobility and transportation system seems to be inescapable, as a result of the increasing urbanization and challenges regarding global sustainability. The concept of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is regarded by policy-makers as an answer to the needed change. Generally speaking, MaaS is an online platform that enables users to plan, book and pay a trip out of a variety of transport modes, conventional and shared. However, in the literature, the potential impact of MaaS on mobility is still relatively unclear. This study, therefore, aims to provide insights into which factors influence the intention to use MaaS among private vehicle owners, who have until now been identified as relatively MaaS-averse travellers. Policy-makers are highly interested in this group to start using MaaS since their shift from private vehicles to other transport options might positively contribute to easing the congestion and environmental problems. In order to create some insights on possible travel behavioural shift and adoption of new systems, an empirical study has been conducted among (co–)owners of motorized vehicles (passenger car, electric passenger car, van, motorcycle; moped) that live in the Netherlands. The survey was based on a conceptual model that explains why people would use this new system (MaaS) and has asked respondents about their travel behaviour, socio-economic characteristics and attitudes towards MaaS. Using Latent Class Cluster Analysis (LCCA) five clusters in the sample population regarding the intention to use MaaS were identified. The cluster profiles show that private vehicle owners who often use public transport and active modes are most inclined to use MaaS, whereas the ‘conservative’ passenger car owners who use the car as their main mode of transport for all their trips (e.g. commuting, leisure) show a lower intention to use MaaS. As it can be expected that the societal benefits of MaaS will especially occur when these conservative car owners adopt MaaS, we conclude that, from a policy perspective, implementing MaaS could be less effective in reducing transport externalities (e.g. pollution and wasted time in congestion) as perhaps expected.

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Experts in the Netherlands have lately debated the novel policy idea to freely apply municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash (MSWIBA). In this paper, we map this ambivalent and unforeseeable, subjective, expert debate. This will help policymaking because more knowledge on subjective expert viewpoints and perceptions allows for clustering conflict and consent as well as gaps in common understanding in this complex debate. We applied Q-methodology which resulted in four distinct perspectives in the expert debate that reveal insights into the social licence to operate and into the legitimacy of the novel bottom ash regime. The freely applicable quality of BA itself is accepted in all perspectives. Conflicting views were found about new risks, trust and socio-political acceptance of the novel BA applications. An important practical contribution of this study is that a higher acceptance of the freely applicable MSWI BA quality in the Netherlands within the expert community can be achieved if the new risks of the free application regime are tackled. We are the first to use Q-methodology in this field, and our academic contribution is that we show that this method can be a helpful tool to unravel complex expert debates also related to MSWI BA applications.@en

This study aims to investigate the consumer acceptance of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) charging of electric vehicle (EV) drivers. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first V2G acceptance study that is based on actual users’ experience of V2G charging. A test set up with a V2G charge point at a solar carport was constructed at the Delft University of Technology. Seventeen participants in the study were given access to a V2G-compatible Nissan LEAF and the constructed V2G charging facilities, after which they were interviewed. Clear communication of the impacts of V2G charging cycles on EV batteries, financial compensation covering these impacts, real-time insight on the battery state-of-charge and the ability to set operational parameters through a user-friendly interface were all found to foster acceptance. The main barriers for acceptance were the uncertainty associated with battery state-of-charge, the increased need for planning charging and trips, the increased anxiety about the ability of the vehicle to reach its destination, economic and performance-related effects on the EV’s battery and the restriction of the freedom that users associated with their personal vehicles. The participants were found to be divided across high, conditional and low acceptance of V2G charging. The use of V2G charging over the trial period was found to inform their opinions: tangible factors such as range anxiety and the user interface were given more importance than abstract concepts such as lack of standards that were discussed by users without experience of V2G charging. Our study indicates that V2G charging in its current form is acceptable to a section of current EV users. The discussion provides insights on extending the relevance of our findings across other user groups and over further developments in the field.@en

In this study a unique bicycle sharing program (BSP) is studied: a BSP initiated by an urban transit provider (buses and trams). The idea is that the combined use of BSPs and buses and trams could increase the catchment area of urban transit alone, therefore offering a more competitive alternative for the car. However, in the scientific literature hardly any knowledge is available regarding to what extent, by whom and how this bicycle – urban transit combination is used. This study explores the so-called ‘HTM-fiets’ programme in The Hague, the Netherlands, operated by urban transit operator HTM. Within the case, data was collected through a survey among the users of this program. The results indicate that, in this case, only 9% of the respondents use HTM-fiets in combination with urban transit. Of bike users who use HTM-fiets as a stand-alone mobility option (i.e. without combining it with transit), 46% have used the HTM-bike as substitute for bus and tram. Our results imply that the transit provider of ‘HTM-fiets’ faces difficult policy choices. The large degree of substitution may negatively influence their business case. However, a large degree of substitution is at the same time not a problem per se for them, because this substitution may alleviate crowding problems in transit and ‘HTM-fiets’ can be seen as an extra service by them offered to people in the Hague to ensure better accessibility of the city. The main lesson would be to focus on an integrated design of BSP and public transport in case a complementary system is aimed for, since our case shows clearly that without an integrated design especially substitution will take place from urban transit to the bicycle.

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As a solution to the high greenhouse gas emissions and declining quality of life caused by private vehicles, the shared mobility hub is introduced. The shared mobility hub is a place where multiple modalities come together, including public transport and shared private mobility. As the shared mobility hub is a relatively new solution, limited research is available on the topic, especially on finding potentially suitable locations for allocating them. In this research, this knowledge gap is addressed by developing and testing a generic methodology to determine suitable locations for a specific type: the regional shared mobility hub. The regional shared mobility hub is located outside a city center being able to act as an intermodal point of transfer. The developed methodology is a combination of two existing methods: the GIS Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) and Multi-Actor Multi-Criteria Analysis (MAMCA) available in the literature. The method is able to score and weight different criteria which determine regional shared mobility hub suitability, taking the end-user (traveler), operator, and government perspectives into account in the weighting. Results are presented in multiple heat maps based on scenarios with varying stakeholder weight importance. The methodology developed consists of five criteria that measure location suitability (potential demand at a certain location, hub implementation costs, generalized travel costs from and to the hub, link to surroundings, and societal impact) measured by nine attributes. In this method, the choice is made for the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to determine the criteria weights. The developed methodology is applied to the region of Rotterdam (The Netherlands) to analyse if the methodology produces useful results for policy implementation. From multiple analyses, it appears that the methodology is suitable for tackling the location suitability determination problem, as it produces intuitive results.

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Background Research investigating the interactions between cyclists and automated vehicles (AVs) is very scarce. So far, only two photo-based studies (Hagenzieker et al., 2019; Rodríguez Palmeiro, van der Kint, Hagenzieker, van Schagen, & de Winter, 2018) and one study using animated videos (Vlakveld & Kint, 2019) have been performed and have generally found conservative dispositions of cyclists towards AVs. Method The aim of this study was to determine the main factors influencing cyclists’ crossing intentions when interacting with an AV as compared to a conventional vehicle (CV). A 360 video smartphone-based virtual reality experiment was performed and included 16 different scenarios resulting from four factors with two-levels each: vehicle type, gap size, vehicle speed, right of way. Additional factors considered in the study were trust in AVs, cyclists’ self-reported behaviour, Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC), and Perceived Risk (PR). Forty-seven individuals participated in the VR experiment. A multinomial logistic mixed regression model was developed and estimated. Results The primary factors influencing cyclists’ crossing intentions are the distance gap between the cyclist and the vehicle approaching the intersection and the right of way. Neither speed of the approaching vehicle, vehicle appearance, vehicle automation or Trust in AVs had a significant effect on the crossing intentions. Interestingly, participants’ statements whether they trusted AVs as compared to CVs was found to be a better predictor of the crossing intentions compared to their score on the Trust in AVs questionnaire. A positive relation was found between cycling slower or faster and PBC and a negative for PR. Conclusions The results of this study concur with previous studies. Cyclists are still cautious towards automated vehicles and do not adapt their behavior when interacting with them, at this point in time. Therefore, vehicle type and appearance did not have an effect on crossing intentions. However, future exposure to AVs may elicit behavioral adaptation from cyclists. Thus, the long term effects of AVs on cyclists should be studied. The relative trust cyclists have in AVs compared to CVs is more important than the absolute trust.@en

Tradable credits for congestion management are a novel policy concept that is receiving increased interest in transportation research. This interest is mainly driven by the belief that the concept can count on stronger social support and hence has a better prospect for implementation than charging-based instruments. This paper is the first to provide an analysis of the social, political, economic and technical feasibility of this concept. To this end, policymakers and researchers from the field of transport have been interviewed. The results reveal so many barriers and challenges in the social and political context that some seem insurmountable, which exposes a difference with expectations formulated in the literature. We reflect on possible options to overcome or avoid barriers but conclude that the concept of tradable peak credits lies very far from the current way of thinking about road use and seems unable to compete with more established charging schemes.

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The economic valuation for different accessibility levels is still an unexplored topic in the field of urban and transport planning. This paper is an exploratory study that aims to quantitatively assess the added value of having multiple options of the same destination available to travel to. A two-phase methodology is proposed based on two different questionnaires. The first phase consists of an explorative questionnaire that helped to narrow the research to two final destinations: medical centres and kindergartens. The second phase is based on the contingent valuation method payment cards, obtaining willingness to pay (WTP) values for different hypothetical situations. A first conclusion is that the value of having multiple options available varies between types of destinations. For basic services this value is motivated by non-use and option values, for non-basic services use values dominate. Secondly, in the case of kindergartens, users and option users have higher a WPT than non-users. For medical centres there is no statistically significant difference between these groups. Third, we did not find a statistical significant impact of demographic variables on WPT values. Fourth, sometimes, it is not only the number of options itself what people appreciate. Many other factors relevant for this appreciation also play a role, examples being the capacity of current destinations or particular characteristics of the destination being valued, especially in the case of non-public destinations.@en

The objective of this study is to identify factors that influence actual electric vehicle (EV) drivers’ acceptance of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) charging. The study takes a qualitative approach in order to provide insight into actual EV users’ perceptions of V2G technology and their underlying motivation to accept or not accept V2G. The Theory of Planned Behaviour is adopted to create a basic conceptual model of the potential factors influencing users’ acceptance of V2G. Twenty semi-structured interviews are conducted among Dutch EV drivers, including both regular EV drivers, as well as participants who had previously taken part in V2G projects. The factors that are found to be most important for fostering acceptance are financial compensation, transparent communication and reliable control of the system by the user. On the other hand, the factors that are found to have a negative effect on acceptance are range anxiety, discomfort experienced while participating and battery degradation. Our study shows that the majority of our interview participants accept V2G albeit with some reservations and caution. As EVs and V2G are new technologies, our sample of twenty actual EV users consists of early adopters. As such, their attitudes may not reflect those of the majority of future users. However, our study suggests that there are EV users who are willing to use V2G charge points and will continue to do so. The reasons behind such user acceptance are further described in the study together with additional insights and ideas for future research.@en

Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology could turn electric vehicles (EVs) into a potentially valuable solution to the problem of increased load demand caused by large-scale EV integration. Successful market penetration of V2G relies not only on developing the technology itself, but also on EV drivers' willingness to participate in this technology. This paper aims to explore Dutch EV drivers' preferences for participating in V2G contracts. In particular, we conduct a context-dependent stated choice experiment to examine the impact of EV recharging technology on the V2G contract preferences. Two contexts have been designed: the current EV recharging time and fast recharging. Our results show that in the context of current recharging time, Dutch EV drivers in general prefer not to participate in V2G contracts, while the opposite is true in the context of fast recharging. With regard to specific V2G contract attributes, Dutch EV drivers are most concerned about ‘discharging cycles’. Also important to them is ‘the guaranteed minimum battery level’, but its importance drops significantly in the fast charging context. In addition, ‘monthly remuneration’ and ‘plug-in time’ also influence people's preferences for adopting V2G. From these findings, we draw the implications for the aggregator and policy makers.@en

Congestieheffing is efficiënt in het bestrijden van files, maar wekt veel weerstand op bij met name automobilisten aangezien het spitsritten duurder maakt. Daarentegen is het belonen van automobilisten voor het mijden van de spits geen langdurige oplossing, maar dat wordt wel overwegend positief ontvangen. De volgende vraag rijst daarom op: biedt het concept van verhandelbare spitscredits ‘the best of both worlds’ waardoor het niet alleen gesteund wordt door automobilisten maar ook door het bredere publiek? Dit artikel is gebaseerd op een deel van het proefschrift ‘Tradable Credits for Congestion Management: support/reject?’ dat de publieke steun voor verhandelbare spitscredits heeft onderzocht. Door middel van verschillende (kwalitatieve en kwantitatieve) methoden worden meningen en steun voor verhandelbare spitscredits in kaart gebracht en vergeleken met steun voor een conventionele congestieheffing. De onderzoeken laten zien dat de publieke steun voor verhandelbare spitscredits vergelijkbaar is met die voor een spitsheffing. Steun voor de spitscredits stijgt wel aanzienlijk tot 52%, afhankelijk van het beleidsontwerp. Dit artikel sluit af met aanbevelingen voor verder onderzoek en voor beleid. @en

Congestion is threatening the accessibility and liveability of urban regions. Cities are usually hesitant to consider the effective, yet controversial idea of congestion pricing as a measure to abate the growing economic and environmental problems. In the longstanding search for an effective and acceptable pricing scheme, there has been an increased interest in tradable credits. Compared to charging instruments, this novel concept has the theoretical advantage that it can better address equity issues while effectively reducing congestion. Although one may argue that tradable peak credits (TPC) lead to higher public acceptability, very few empirical studies have researched this. Therefore, this study explores attitudes towards TPC using five focus groups with Dutch citizens. The participants were confronted with a hypothetical city where two instruments were suggested: peak charge (PC) and TPC. Most participants preferred PC and only two participants supported TPC while opposing PC. The advantages as addressed in literature played minor roles in the discussions. Participants revealed a sceptical attitude towards TPC or were more convinced about PC. Contrary to expectations, the attitudes became more negative as the discussions developed. Based on these insights, we propose directions for future research to assist the search for an acceptable congestion pricing instrument.

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This chapter explores the extent to which the adoption of highly automated vehicles (AVs) will lead to carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission reduction in the future. Additionally, policy implications are given. Based on existing literature, this chapter shows that the adoption of AVs will result in a modest improvement of CO₂ emission per kilometer traveled compared to non-autonomous vehicles in the future. Combined with the expectations that AVs will lead to a modest to, even, high growth in vehicle kilometers traveled (VKT) compared to business as usual, the net energy and CO₂ emission balance for AVs seems, at its best, to be neutral, but is probably negative. The potential accelerating role of AVs in relation to the uptake of electric vehicles might have the largest positive impacts on the CO₂ emissions per kilometer driven, but this accelerating role of AV technology in relation to the uptake of electric vehicles is uncertain. For the time being the most useful policy implication to curb road transport CO₂ emissions seems to be to continue with policies that promote the use of alternatives for fossil fuels, such as electricity.

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A deep understanding of people's support for road pricing may help policymakers to design more practical pricing schemes that are effective in abating congestion but lead to less public opposition. This study adds to the rich body of road pricing acceptability literature by taking a different approach that focuses on the underlying pattern of the arguments, beliefs and attitudes, which largely determine the viewpoint of individuals with respect to road pricing. We apply Q-methodology to find these viewpoints by asking respondents to rank order subjective arguments that are subtracted from the public debate on road pricing and to identify shared viewpoints that are called frames. Analysis revealed four frames: The polluter should pay, Focus on fair alternatives, What's in it for me? and Don't interfere. Only the Polluter should pay frame is positive about road pricing. The other three frames are negative about road pricing, which suggests that there is not just one single block of citizens opposed to road pricing, but that quite different arguments are used in the various frames. We discuss how these frames can be used by policy-makers that intend to implement road pricing, to fine-tune the design, communication and implementation process of road pricing schemes.

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Equity considerations in transportation planning literature have received increasingly more attention in the previous decades. While there have been theoretical suggestions to base transportation planning methods on the philosophical principle of “sufficientarianism” (whereby everyone is entitled to a minimum level of a good or service), the proposed approaches have not yet been developed enough to be usable for policy decision-making. In this paper we aim to bridge this gap by operationalizing in a case study an indicator of equity based on the theoretical work of Martens (2017) which argues for sufficientarianism. The presented formalised methodology can identify and quantify equity issues in transportation, is flexible to different contexts, and is a transparent way to assess equity in transportation. The case study shows that data availability is an important constraint and that careful attention must be paid to various assumptions and choices made.

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