Climate change presents a significant global challenge, prompting governments to adopt a range of
mitigation strategies, most notably, carbon pricing schemes. However, such policies are often met
with concern over carbon leakage, where emissions reductions in one country are offset by increases
elsewhere, potentially undermining the environmental effectiveness of national efforts.
This thesis investigates the relationship between carbon pricing policies and national carbon leakage
rates over the period 1995–2018. Drawing on data from the TECO2 dataset and the International and
Sectoral Variation in Industrial Energy Prices 1995–2015, and applying the electricity price elasticity
methodology introduced by Misch and Wingender (2024), this study calculates annual carbon
leakage rates for each country. In doing so, it extends previous research, such as the Misch and
Wingender and Sato et al (2019).
A key contribution of this thesis is its novel application of the Carbon Pricing Dashboard, a dataset
that remains underutilized in empirical research. This study aims to demonstrate its potential for
carbon leakage analysis. Another important contribution is the attempt to extend the methodology
developed by Misch and Wingender by applying it not only to CO₂ emissions, as in the original study,
but also to broader greenhouse gas emissions. This provides insight into the scope and limitations of
their approach when adapted to different types of emissions data. Finally, this thesis contributes to
the ongoing policy discussion on carbon pricing by linking yearly carbon leakage rates to country-
specific pricing policy variables, such as carbon price levels and policy coverage. In doing so, it
investigates whether systematic relationships exist between national carbon pricing strategies and
the extent of carbon leakage.
The results indicate that carbon pricing policies explain a meaningful share of the variation in leakage
rates across countries, though country-specific fixed effects account for an even larger portion,
suggesting that structural or institutional factors may play a more dominant role. Notably, the
analysis reveals a negative relationship between carbon pricing and leakage rates, implying that more
ambitious pricing policies may actually help reduce leakage. This finding challenges the prevailing
narrative in the literature, which often assumes that stricter carbon pricing increases leakage and
harms competitiveness. It suggests that policymakers might be able to adopt stronger carbon pricing
measures without significant economic drawbacks. Additionally, the study finds no strong evidence
that coordinated international carbon pricing efforts lead to greater leakage reductions compared to
unilateral national policies, raising questions about the added value of formal international
alignment in this context. However, these results should be interpreted with caution. The method
used to estimate leakage rates may introduce bias, and further validation is necessary.
That said, the research has some limitations. Most notably, the fixed effects model could not
incorporate time fixed effects due to data constraints, raising the risk that some time-related
variation may have been wrongly attributed to policy variables. This limitation may partly explain the
unexpected direction of some results.
By extending and refining the methodology developed by Misch and Wingender (2024), this thesis
offers new empirical insights into the drivers of carbon leakage and contributes to the policy debate
on the design and efficacy of national carbon pricing frameworks. In doing so, it also provides a more
detailed methodological reflection on the assumptions and limitations inherent in price elasticity-
based leakage estimation.

This thesis investigates the socio-economic and ecological challenges faced by the Galapagos Islands, focusing on their increasing reliance on mainland Ecuador for food and the social tensions stemming from top-down conservation policies. These challenges are compounded by the islands’ growing ecological footprint and tourism pressures. The study explores the potential of Circular Communities, regenerativity, and convivial conservation as frameworks to address ongoing issues in the food sector and to provide recommendations for structural solutions.

Using a mixed methods approach and participatory action research, the study holistically analyses the productive food systems of Santa Cruz and San Cristobal, the primary inhabited islands. By conducting active participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and a co-creation workshop, the researcher uncovered findings that indicate how adopting a regenerative food system can reduce the islands’ dependency on external resources, decrease ecological pressures, enhance social cohesion, and align conservation efforts with local entrepreneurial needs.

The increasing demand for Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) and the subsequent rise in e-waste has become a pressing environmental concern. Traditional linear economic models in the EEE manufacturing sector, which emphasize a "take-make-dispose" approach, are not sustainable and contribute to significant environmental degradation. This thesis explores the integration of circular economy (CE) principles with digital twin technology to address the environmental challenges posed by the EEE sector. Through an extensive literature review and expert interviews, this research develops and validates a framework for integrating digital twins into CBMs, aiming to enhance resource efficiency and reduce waste across the product lifecycle. While promising, challenges related to data governance and organizational alignment remain. The Digital Twin Nexus Circular Business Models framework offers strategies to improve sustainability in the EEE sector, aiding manufacturers in transitioning from linear to circular business practices.

The water and subsurface sector faces numerous urgent challenges related to climate adaptation and sustainable infrastructure. It is the responsibility of Rijkswaterstaat (RWS) to establish objectives and collaborate with partners in the sector to address these challenges. Innovations are crucial for effectively addressing these issues, and therefore, RWS has developed an innovation strategy focused on the tactical level, which provides essential information for its employees and partners. This study examines RWS’s current innovation strategy and its development, evaluates the strategy’s influence on innovation processes within the water and subsurface sector, and offers recommendations for enhancing the strategy. Specifically, the study investigates the influence of RWS’s innovation strategy on resource allocation, the development and diffusion of innovations, and both internal and external collaboration. The findings indicate that the influence of RWS’s innovation strategy is most evident in resource allocation, where its focal points serve as guiding principles for innovation and as accountability mechanisms. Furthermore, the influence of the strategy on the development and diffusion of innovations, as well as on both internal and external collaboration, is becoming increasingly apparent in practice; however, it requires additional time for further visibility. Positive developments include the adoption of specific tools designed to stimulate the innovation process and the implementation of innovative collaborative approaches, such as learning spaces. To enhance RWS’s innovation strategy and its influence in the water and subsurface sector, this study recommends maintaining continuity, improving visibility and clarity, and stimulating sector-wide collaboration and alignment.

Every year, the world generates 7-10 billion tonnes of waste. Rapid population growth, urbanisation, and increased consumption is projected to increase this number by 70% in 2050. Asia generates the most waste globally and also imports a significant amount of waste from other regions. Waste valorisation transforms waste into higher value products and can be a crucial solution for sustainable waste management in Asia. This research builds on the Technological Innovation System (TIS) Framework and adapts it to the contexts of Asia and the waste valorisation industry with new drivers and barriers. The adapted framework was applied to four case studies of Asian waste- valorising companies: EnviroTech in the Philippines, Ricron Panels in India, Kinava in South Korea, and Less & Co in Singapore. The TIS framework analysis identified barriers that can be grouped into 3 categories: 1) lack of customer demand, 2) incomplete or inefficient operations, and 3) lack of institutional support and resulted in a total of 41 niche strategies that can serve as a resource for companies facing similar barriers.

This research addresses the growing issue of electronic waste (e-waste) and the environmental impact of the IT industry, which contributes up to 2.8% of global greenhouse gas emissions. The study focuses on developing a Decision Support System (DSS) to help European businesses manage IT hardware sustainably, in line with regulations like the European Green Deal. The DSS offers strategies for sustainable procurement, energy optimization, extending hardware lifespan, and responsible disposal, aiding businesses in reducing their environmental impact. The research also highlights the DSS's potential to promote circular economy principles and recommends further development for broader applicability.

Cargo airlines are increasingly pressured to enhance sustainability across all aspects of their operations, including the ground handling services managed by global partners. These operations are integral to reducing the overall environmental impact of the aviation industry, necessitating effective Partner Relationship Management (PRM) that incorporates sustainability objectives.

Managing sustainability across a diverse and global network of partners presents significant challenges, as these partners vary widely in their willingness and capability to implement sustainable practices. The complexity of this task is compounded by the lack of a structured approach to evaluate and guide these partners toward achieving sustainability goals. The central question addressed in this research is: ”How can a Decision Support System (DSS) be developed to guide Partner Relationship Management (PRM) for the operations of existing partners of cargo airlines to achieve sustainability goals?”

To tackle this issue, a DSS was developed, utilising Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) with the Best-Worst Method (BWM). The DSS was applied to KLM Cargo’s operations, focusing on segmenting partners based on their capabilities and willingness to meet sustainability goals, specifically zero emissions and zero waste. This segmentation enabled the creation of tailored strategies for each partner segment.

The DSS effectively categorised partners and identified key trends, such as the performance of GHAs operating multiple outstations and the area in which the outstations are operating. This categorisation facilitated the development of a step-by-step strategy, including specified components of strategies for each segment and the introduction of a checklist to assess the current sustainability practices of each partner. These tools proved essential for guiding PRM toward the achievement of sustainability goals.

This research offers a robust framework for sustainability management that can be generalised across the cargo airline industry and potentially other sectors. Future research should focus on validating the DSS in different contexts, refining the segmentation techniques, and further developing the checklist to ensure comprehensive sustainability assessments and strategy development across diverse operational environments.

Hydrogen is key to decarbonising hard-to-abate industries where electrification has a limited role to play. With a cleaner carbon footprint and versatility with existing industrial processes, hydrogen can be used as a fuel in these energy-intensive industries. As the hydrogen industry is still in its initial phases many researchers have estimated its economic impacts. Most of the current research is focused on the employment market. This study evaluates the economic impact of the emerging green hydrogen industry in India both in terms of employment creation and contribution to GDP growth. The study also
quantifies the savings in imports caused by switching from fossil fuel to green hydrogen in different industries. The main objective of this study is to verify the projections of the National Green Hydrogen Mission(NGHM) of India which aims to produce 5 million metric tons (MMT) of hydrogen per annum by 2030. Leontief’s input-output model is used to evaluate the economic impacts.

The study revealed that there would be an employment creation of 410570 FTE jobs and 4838 M USD contribution to GDP for every gigawatt(GW) scale hydrogen plant installed. Additionally, there would also be import savings of around 1 B USD per annum for a GW-scale plant. It is found that the amount of imports of machinery and equipment significantly affects the impact indicators. If half of the machinery and equipment is imported the contribution to GDP is reduced by 50% whereas the employment creation and GHG emissions are reduced by 30% when compared to the all the machinery is domestically manufactured scenario. The projections of India’s NGHM are evaluated and found comparable with those of the government projections. Overall, the establishment of the green hydrogen industry in India is found to have a positive impact on the economy by significantly boosting the national GDP and employment creation.

The research aimed to validate the methodology used for the previously conducted work on the Dutch PV startup sector by applying it to Indian PV startups and providing insights into how external factors influence their Business Model Dynamics (BMD). It revealed some similarities and differences between the Dutch and Indian technology-based PV startups, offering valuable information for investors, industry players, entrepreneurs and policymakers to formulate effective policies and support sustainable PV industry growth. The comparative analysis identified different external triggers and their consequences across various periods and growth stages in developing technology-based PV startups in the two regions. The results concluded with a focus on political and economic factors being the most impacting external agents for the growth of a startup.

The 21st century has seen a significant rise in clean technologies driven by urgent environmental challenges alongside transformative digital innovations shaping global interactions. Despite these significant events, cleantech startups face substantial challenges and missed opportunities in effectively integrating digital technologies into their sustainable business strategies. To fully harness the potential of digital innovations, addressing the trade-offs and synergies cleantech startups encountered between digital and sustainable strategic practices is crucial, as is understanding the underlying causes of their strategic choices. Despite the rising interest of academia in sustainable and digital entrepreneurship, academic research fails to identify these trade-offs and synergies within cleantech startups.
As a result, the main objective of this research is to explore and identify trade-offs and synergies that arise when entrepreneurs follow a sustainable and digital strategy simultaneously within cleantech startups and how they are influenced by their stakeholders, resources, and external environment. By examining the influences of resources, stakeholders, and external pressures, the research seeks to understand entrepreneurs' strategic decision-making process and the implementation of digital technologies within a complex environment. The main research question is defined as follows:

“How do Dutch cleantech startups navigate the synergies and trade-offs between digital and sustainable practices, and what are the underlying dynamics shaping these interactions?”

A systematic literature review mapped the existing academic perspectives on the strategic practices of Dutch cleantech startups, revealing the research gaps. The study employs the resource-based view theory and is complemented by the institutional theory as the foundation of the research. The research uses the concepts of digital and sustainability strategic orientation to explain how their practices are influenced and define the resources and external incentives as moderators. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine Dutch cleantech startups in various industries, such as agriculture, shipping and renewable energies. A qualitative content analysis was conducted to explore the trade-offs and ynergies, resources and incentives, followed by a stakeholders analysis, interview comparison and relational analysis to research the underlying dynamics. The findings show that the startups navigate complex trade-offs between sustainable and digital practices, balancing investment in digital tools for profitability and scalability with commitments to sustainable R&D.
Pressures from financial investors prioritise digital scaling and profitability over sustainable impact. Startups prioritise external sustainability impacts over internal sustainable practices and technical talent acquisition over workforce equality. Synergies emerge from leveraging technologies like AI, machine learning, dashboards, and blockchain to enhance product quality, validation, credibility, operational efficiency, and regulatory compliance, supported by collaborations with universities and incubators. Stricter sustainable regulations secure funding and stimulate market demand, facilitating the integration of digital and sustainable strategies. Moderating dynamics are financial resources, influencing the balance between profit-driven practices and sustainable investments. Technical team knowledge enhances digital capabilities, and social networks with incubators and R&D institutions foster collaboration synergies despite challenges in data exchange due to limited digital infrastructure. Normative pressures from customers' expectations and coercive pressures from investors and regulators further shape strategic priorities, emphasising compliance with technical standards. Further research is recommended to evaluate the impact of various digital technologies in enhancing synergies and trade-offs. Furthermore, the direct relationship between resources and external incentives warrants further exploration to understand their influence on strategic practices. Additionally, addressing investor influence, including distinctions between impact investors and traditional venture capitalists, could be helpful. Broader studies with diverse samples from different regions and countries and longitudinal studies are recommended to explore the long-term effects of digital and sustainable orientations and practices.

This thesis examines the pressing environmental issue stemming from the accumulation of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), particularly within the automotive sector. Despite directives from the European Commission aiming to promote a circular economy, challenges persist in effectively managing WEEE, particularly in End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs). Current dismantling practices often lead to the loss of valuable materials, exacerbating environmental and health risks. Recognizing the need for improved data sharing, this research investigates the potential of the International Data Spaces (IDS) initiative in enhancing WEEE management within the automotive industry, with a focus on ELV dismantling.

The primary research question centers on how IDS can facilitate WEEE information exchange between manufacturers and dismantlers within the automotive sector. The study is structured into five phases to comprehensively address this question:

Exploratory Phase: This phase identifies current barriers to WEEE information sharing in the automotive industry, employing the Circular Economy (CE) monitoring framework for analysis.

Requirements Elicitation Phase: Through desk research, legislative analysis, and stakeholder interviews, essential requirements for effective information sharing are identified, considering barriers, legislative mandates, and dismantlers' perspectives.

Application Phase: The feasibility of meeting identified requirements using IDS is explored, drawing on academic literature and documentation from the IDS initiative.

Concluding Phase: Findings from previous stages are integrated to address the main research question regarding IDS's role in facilitating WEEE information sharing.

Discussion Phase: The final phase evaluates the research approach, discusses conclusions, limitations, and suggests avenues for future research.

Barriers to WEEE information sharing within the automotive industry encompass incomplete documentation, lack of harmonization, information gaps, inconsistent data entry, and restricted accessibility. These findings inform the elicitation of requirements, emphasizing the need for detailed dismantling information, interoperability, and user-friendly interfaces.

Evaluation of IDS demonstrates its potential in providing dismantlers access to fundamental information, simplifying data access processes, ensuring data sovereignty, facilitating interoperability, and supporting initiatives like the circularity vehicle passport. However, its effectiveness relies on stakeholder participation and regulatory support.

In conclusion, this thesis proposes IDS as a solution to enhance WEEE information sharing in the automotive industry, contributing to sustainable development and advancing scientific understanding. Further research is recommended to address implementation challenges and develop specific ontologies tailored to the automotive sector.

This thesis delves into the pivotal role of engineering education in equipping students to tackle the challenges posed by climate change. Despite widespread efforts in higher education institutions, particularly in engineering, to incorporate education for sustainable development (ESD), effectiveness often falls short, leading to a regression to previous norms. Moreover, there is a dearth of literature on the implementation of ESD in applied sciences (AS) institutions, compounding the issue. This study focuses on the AS Faculty at TU Delft, which, despite ambitious climate goals, has a low percentage of courses addressing sustainability. The emphasis is on a systemic approach to ESD implementation, with the aim of providing recommendations for the educational portfolio of the Climate Action Plan of the AS Faculty of TU Delft.

The study begins with an extensive literature review on ESD implementation and systemic change within higher (engineering) education institutions (HE(E)Is). Findings elucidate specific strategies, barriers, drivers, and uncertainty factors, emphasizing the significance of context and culture. Two case studies on universities of applied sciences, NHL Stenden and Van Hall Larenstein, are conducted to contextualize theoretical insights within the AS Faculty at TU Delft. These case studies provide real-life examples of systemic ESD implementation, highlighting associated challenges and successes.

Subsequently, the AS Faculty of TU Delft is investigated through interviews with stakeholders relevant to ESD implementation. The exploration reveals engagement in both top-down and bottom-up initiatives, such as modifications in the Master program in Chemical Engineering and the implementation of the Green Thread initiative. The faculty has established a Climate Action Team to devise a Climate Action plan, including an educational portfolio, drawing insights from the research conducted.

Twelve influential thematic variables and their associated barriers, drivers, and uncertainty factors are identified through interviews. A focus group SWOT analysis further explores these variables, leading to the development of five strategies (ST1 to ST5) aimed at structuring the education portfolio of the AS Climate Action Plan. These strategies address change direction, context and culture, planning and preparation, design and implementation, and maintaining momentum and sustaining change.

The study concludes by recommending continuous evaluation of the proposed strategies and further exploration of outcomes related to the Climate Action Plan. It acts as a catalyst for discussions within the faculty, promoting broader conversations with the potential to positively impact the AS community.

The agricultural sector in India is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, in part due to the widespread use of diesel-powered irrigation pumps. In response, the Indian government launched the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM KUSUM) scheme in 2019 to promote the adoption of solar energy for agricultural irrigation. Component B of the scheme, which aims at replacing diesel pumps with standalone solar pumps, has shown varying policy performance across states. This thesis explores the factors contributing to these disparities, focusing on socio-economic, agricultural, energy, and institutional domains that influence policy outcomes.

Using a mixed-methods approach, the study combines Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) with thematic analysis of expert interviews. The QCA identifies key causal pathways to both positive and negative adoption outcomes, highlighting patterns that explain the differing regional performances. Additionally, the thematic analysis examined the roles of institutional capacity, stakeholder coordination, and resource availability, providing nuanced insights into the factors shaping implementation.

The findings indicated that irrigation demand, influenced by factors such as unreliable electricity access or reliance on diesel pumps, interacted with regional conditions to shape policy outcomes. Broader enabling factors, including institutional support, resource availability, and political or economic considerations, played a significant role in facilitating the adoption of solar water pumps under the policy. These insights contribute to a deeper understanding of the energy-agriculture nexus and offer a foundation for improving solar energy adoption in agriculture by developing a better understanding of the factors influencing policy performance.

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The uptake of electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles in the Netherlands progresses slowly despite their importance for sustainable mobility. With 2030 zero-emission targets approaching, this thesis offers a unique perspective from within the Dutch automotive sector. It analyzes how companies view and address the challenges of this transition, providing an in-depth look at corporate strategies.

This study uses a mixed-method approach, combining a literature review, desk research, formal interviews, informal meetings, and observations during an internship at Pon, a leading automotive importer. Insights from this unique position offer a direct view of how companies adapt their strategies to a complex and evolving environment. Interviews with mobility experts, sustainability specialists, dealers, and vehicle brand representatives highlighted market trends, barriers, and strategies. The Technological Innovation Systems framework was applied to offer a broader understanding of systemic interactions and feedback loops that shape the electrification process.

The analysis shows that inconsistent government policies create uncertainty for companies and consumers. This uncertainty drives companies to adopt reactive, short-term strategies, prioritizing sales volumes over long-term planning. Dealers face reduced margins and limited customization options for electric vehicles, disrupting traditional business models. Meanwhile, rising vehicle costs have shifted the focus toward business-to-business solutions like fleet management and mobility solutions. For private buyers, the increasing cost of new cars has turned vehicle ownership into a luxury, further narrowing the consumer market.

Public skepticism, fueled by misinformation and negative media, amplifies the uncertainty and further slows the uptake of electric mobility. Infrastructure challenges, such as grid congestion and limited charging options for households without driveways, deepen consumer hesitation. In the sector, skepticism toward electric vehicles also lives, with interviewees expressing a preference for internal combustion engine vehicles. This sentiment influences the transition, as companies remain cautious about electrification.

The Technological Innovation Systems framework highlights weakening feedback loops, particularly between market formation and legitimization. While financial incentives initially stimulated demand and public support, the phase-out of subsidies has reduced societal acceptance and confidence in long-term electrification goals. Companies face additional barriers in resource mobilization, as they must divide investments between internal combustion engines and electric technologies. This division boosts skepticism both within the sector and among consumers. Together, these challenges form a cycle of doubt that slows progress.

To address these challenges, companies must shift from reactive strategies to long-term ones, prioritizing sustainable mobility. These strategies include advocating for consistent policies, building consumer trust through practical measures such as test drives, and facilitating a robust second-hand electric vehicle market. Diversifying business models with mobility solutions can stabilize revenues while enhancing consumer relationships. Moreover, lobbying for plug-in hybrid vehicles and e-fuels as transitional technologies provides a practical pathway for broader participation in the electrification process.

This study takes initial steps to understand why 47% of companies creating Radically New Technological Innovations fail before reaching large scale diffusion and how to prevent such failures. This was achieved by integrating Ortt’s (2010) evolution model—which states that an innovation passes through a development and adaptation phase before reaching large-scale diffusion—with the Technological Innovation System framework, which emphasizes that an innovation encompasses more than just its technical features. These combined theories were then analyzed using the System Dynamics Modelling approach. The main question in this process was: “How can we develop a System Dynamics Model that accurately portrays the interactions among elements within the Technical Innovation System, shedding
light on the system’s behavior across different phases and identifying factors hindering the progression of the adaptation into the diffusion phase?"

To answer this question, we developed a method, a model depicting the interactions between the TIS-factors, a theory on transitions between phases, and a simulation model demonstrating the influence of certain factors on these transitions. The developed method is based on synthesis, in which theories on the factors within the TIS, namely customers, price, performance, production, networks, institutions, and complementary products and services, are combined into one coherent framework. This framework acts as a hypothesis, outlining the variables that make up the factors and defining their interrelations. From this hypothesis, a conceptual and a simulation model can be built which can be validated using expert interviews and experimentation. Using this method, we built a conceptual model that maps the variables and their relationships, while also clearly stating its assumptions. Through evaluating this model, we identified customers, production, networks, and complementary products and services as potential drivers in the system.

Additionally, we found that growth in legitimacy and R&D can have both positive and negative influences on the system, depending on how other factors develop. To understand how the TIS is first adapted and then reaches large scale diffusion, a theory on market transitions was designed. Here we hypothesized that the adaptation and diffusion phases are really a series of heterogeneous markets that are characterized by different demand preferences. Initially, during the adaptation phase, these are niche markets, while in the diffusion phase, the innovation can enter larger and more demanding main markets. Additionally, we proposed three pathways for an innovation to transition from one market to another: first, by evolving its TIS to align with the market’s demand preferences, which is often essential in main markets; second, when demand preferences shift to match with the TIS, typically seen in smaller niche markets; and third, when both demand and the TIS evolve to better align.

Lastly, our goal was to begin to identify which elements are crucial in market transitions. To achieve this, we constructed a simulation model that illustrated the interaction between standardization and potential shifts in demand preferences. The variable Standardization is grounded in the assumption derived from the conceptual model that, given enough time, all TISs will produce a standardized product. Our findings indicate that when entering a market, having a high level of standardization is essential to achieve high-level diffusion, particularly in markets focused on a developed TIS. Conversely, to prevent low diffusion levels, it is important to enter the market only when the product is favored by consumers, especially in markets determined by external demand preferences; additionally, low standardization should also be avoided.

In conclusion, the synthesis method created here can be used to indicate what elements are essential in enabling or hindering the progression from the adaptation to the diffusion phase. Initial conclusions indicate that there are several drivers and potential hindrances within the system and that both standardization and shifting demand preferences can greatly impact possible transitions, depending on the specific characteristics of the market.
As these are the first steps in a long line of research, there is so much more to be done. For this it might seem obvious to only look to the future and aim to design more specialized conceptual models, or a simulation model that encompasses all elements. However, I also want to invite you to look to the past and see how this study can be used to clarify the theories and methods that form its foundation.

Carbon pricing is a common and constantly changing policy tool with the goal of stimulating the re duction of carbon dioxide emissions and the transition to cleaner technologies. The combination of a carbon tax and the new Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) is causing price effects in the EU. There is currently a lack of research using the latest high-granularity data to identify price effects by country and sector in the EU. Additionally, only a few methodologies exist to validate and enhance models of current carbon policy price effects. This thesis estimates the price effects of carbon taxation across EU sectors and countries using 2021 FIGARO data with high sector granularity. Using traditional input-output modelling the tax was first applied to value-added- the standard method- and subsequently the approach of taxing intermediate sales was explored. The results from the value-added method were extended to estimate changes in trade flows and subsequently placed into the context of the broader political economy. Additionally, the outcomes from the intermediate sales method were compared to those from the value-added method. This showed that the EU will experience an ave age price increase of 1.26%, and CBAM changes a competitive disadvantage from -0.98% to a 1.46% competitive advantage. It is therefore seen that price increases remain moderate, and CBAM achieves its goal of protecting the EU’s competitiveness. However, for a carbon tax and CBAM to be fully effective in stimulating a transition to cleaner technologies, they should be implemented in combination with subsidies, investment in markets and infrastructure, as well as effective dissemination of research and development. The model was limited to examining the effects within the EU, and more research is needed to expand it to understand the impacts on trade partners. Additionally, further analysis is needed to understand the mechanics of the tax on intermediate sales method

The transportation sector is a major contributor to global emissions, with road transportation responsible for a significant part of these emissions. Electric mobility, particularly Solar Electric Vehicles (SEVs), offers a solution to deal with the challenges encountered by traditional electric vehicles ultimately contributing to reducing emissions, which is especially relevant for countries like India. This thesis investigates the socio-technical conditions influencing the market diffusion of SEVs in India using the Technological Innovation Systems (TIS) framework. It involves qualitative research methods, including expert interviews, to explore barriers, opportunities, strategies, and stakeholders involved. This is investigated further by raising the (research) question

“What are the socio-technical conditions that affect the market diffusion of Solar Electric Vehicles in the Indian market?”

This study is conducted through four different phases. It begins by examining the current status of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and their technological similarities with SEVs. While SEVs have the potential to offer a dual power source with solar panels, they are yet to enter the Indian market. Also, various relevant frameworks are reviewed to understand the conditions affecting SEV diffusion, including the TIS framework by Ortt and Kamp (2022). SEVs are classified as disruptive technology, and the possibility of large-scale diffusion of SEVs in India is explored by evaluating the completeness of certain TIS building blocks.

During the second phase, the barriers, their underlying conditions, and the affected TIS building blocks are linked using the guidelines provided in the literature. Upon identifying the links, the status of TIS building blocks is evaluated for SEVs in India. It is evaluated by understanding the level of threat these barriers pose to the diffusion of SEVs in India, based on the validation from expert interviews. Additionally, the opportunities for SEV technology in the Indian market are also discussed highlighting their potential to solve the problems in India.

In order to address the barriers identified in phase two, using the Niche strategy framework proposed by Ortt et al. (2013), the strategies relevant to the market diffusion of SEVs are explored and validated. These strategies are clearly divided into the ones tailored for the government, industry, and customers. Expert interviews reveal the feasibility of the implementation of these strategies based on the current market conditions and also that of the future.

After identifying the barriers, and the strategies, in phase four, the links between them are formulated based on the guidelines provided in the literature. These guidelines are used to first, formulate all the possible strategy links circumventing each barrier. Secondly, based on the expert opinions the procedure to select the most important strategy (per barrier) from the list of possible all the possible strategies is provided.

Ultimately, upon forming the links, the immediate threats to the market diffusion of SEVs in India are discovered, and the possible measures to circumvent those threats are recommended to the stakeholders involved.