Electric vehicles have penetrated the Dutch market, which increases the potential for decreased local emissions, the use and storage of sustainable energy, and the roll-out and use of electric car-sharing business models. This development also raises new potential issues such as increased electricity demand, a lack of social acceptance, and infrastructural challenges in the built environment. Relevant stakeholders, such as policymakers and service providers, need to align their values and prioritize these aspects. Our study investigates the prioritization of 11 Dutch decision-makers in the field of public electric vehicle charging. These decision-makers prioritized different indicators related to measurements (e.g., EV adoption rates or charge point profitability), organization (such as fast- or smart-charging), and developments (e.g., the development of mobility-service markets) using the best-worst method. The indicators within these categories were prioritized for three different scenario's in time. The results reveal that priorities will shift from EV adoption and roll-out of infrastructure to managing peak demand, using more sustainable charging techniques (such as V2G), and using sustainable energy towards 2030. Technological advancements and autonomous charging techniques will become more relevant in a later time period, around 2040. Environmental indicators (e.g., local emissions) were consistently valued low, whereas mobility indicators were valued differently across participants, indicating a lack of consensus. Smart charging was consistently valued higher than other charging techniques, independent of time period. The results also revealed that there are some distinct differences between the priorities of policymakers and service providers. Having a systematic overview of what aspects matter supports the policy discussion around EVs in the built environment.@en

Charging infrastructure in neighborhoods is essential for inhabitants who use electric vehicles. The development of public charging infrastructure can be complex because of its dependency on local grid conditions, the responsibility to prepare for anticipated fleet growth policies, and the implicit biases that may occur with the allocation of charging resources. How can accessible EV charging be ensured in the future, regardless of energy infrastructure and socio-economic status of the neighborhood? This study aims to represent the decision-making in the allocation of public charging infrastructure and ensure that various key issues are accounted for in the short-term and long-term decision making. The paper first identifies these issues, then describes the decision-making process, and all of these are summarized in a visual overview describing the short-term and long-term decision loop considering various key indicators. A case study area is identified by comparing locally available data sources in the City of Amsterdam for future simulation.

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Hydrogen is becoming increasingly popular as a clean, secure, and affordable energy source for the future. This study develops an approach for designing a PV–battery–electrolyzer–fuel cell energy system that utilizes hydrogen as a long-term storage medium and battery as a short-term storage medium. The system is designed to supply load demand primarily through direct electricity generation in the summer, and indirect electricity generation through hydrogen in the winter. The sizing of system components is based on the direct electricity and indirect hydrogen demand, with a key input parameter being the load sizing factor, which determines the extent to which hydrogen is used to meet seasonal imbalance. Technical and financial indicators are used to assess the performance of the designed system. Simulation results indicate that the energy system can effectively balance the seasonal variation of renewable generation and load demand with the use of hydrogen. Additionally, guidelines for achieving self-sufficiency and system sustainability for providing enough power in the following years are provided to determine the appropriate component size. The sensitivity analysis indicates that the energy system can achieve self-sufficiency and system sustainability with a proper load sizing factor from a technical perspective. From an economic perspective, the levelized cost of energy is relatively high because of the high costs of hydrogen-related components at this moment. However, it has great economic potential for future self-sufficient energy systems with the maturity of hydrogen technologies.

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This study aims to investigate the consumer acceptance of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) charging of electric vehicle (EV) drivers. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first V2G acceptance study that is based on actual users’ experience of V2G charging. A test set up with a V2G charge point at a solar carport was constructed at the Delft University of Technology. Seventeen participants in the study were given access to a V2G-compatible Nissan LEAF and the constructed V2G charging facilities, after which they were interviewed. Clear communication of the impacts of V2G charging cycles on EV batteries, financial compensation covering these impacts, real-time insight on the battery state-of-charge and the ability to set operational parameters through a user-friendly interface were all found to foster acceptance. The main barriers for acceptance were the uncertainty associated with battery state-of-charge, the increased need for planning charging and trips, the increased anxiety about the ability of the vehicle to reach its destination, economic and performance-related effects on the EV’s battery and the restriction of the freedom that users associated with their personal vehicles. The participants were found to be divided across high, conditional and low acceptance of V2G charging. The use of V2G charging over the trial period was found to inform their opinions: tangible factors such as range anxiety and the user interface were given more importance than abstract concepts such as lack of standards that were discussed by users without experience of V2G charging. Our study indicates that V2G charging in its current form is acceptable to a section of current EV users. The discussion provides insights on extending the relevance of our findings across other user groups and over further developments in the field.@en

This paper discusses the development of future green ammonia supply chains in China with the theory of complex system engineering, taking account of technical system, actors and institutions in future energy systems featured socio-technical systems as a whole. The energy condition in China identified features a spatial imbalance between renewable energy supply and demand, which cannot be fully addressed by the current power system-centric solution. This calls for hydrogen to make a concerted effort in the energy transition. By comparing major hydrogen delivery options, we argue that green ammonia can play a feasible role for large-scale energy distribution and long-term energy storage. The development of green ammonia supply chains and direct use of ammonia are proposed to avoid large uncertainties and initial investment in the early stage. The market creation will be key in the supply chain development. A long-term bilateral contract between buyer and seller and a joint investment in an integrated supply chain by several stakeholders are advised to share risks and ensure capital recovery. In addition, government participation is crucial in the early development phase by setting regulatory and financial institutions to support the market creation and supply chain development.@en

Natural gas for heating is widespread in the built environment of The Netherlands, where the government aims at limiting heat demand and reducing natural gas consumption over the coming decades. In the owner-occupied residential sector, this transition is complex and requires cooperation and coordination of individuals and groups that make investment decisions. We use agent-based modelling to explore the effect that various financial policies could have in an illustrative neighbourhood, given that households make multi-criteria and group decisions. In the scientific literature, this type of energy model seldom focuses on the adoption of competing technologies by households as individual and collective agents grouped in homeowner associations in multi-family buildings. To address the problem and knowledge gaps, we model individual preferences with a multi-criteria perceived lifetime utility submodel, and decisions as outcomes of individual preferences and a threshold voting system. We explore energy taxes (natural gas and electricity), regulated price of heat from networks, and subsidies (insulation and heat pumps). Under our assumptions, we found that combinations of fiscal policies, regulated heat prices, and subsidies can sometimes create incentives for households to disconnect from natural gas, but that steering the transition mainly with financial policies could prove ineffective. We also found that, in terms of collective CO2 reduction, some transitions in which only some households phase out natural gas could have results similar to some scenarios in which households only improve their dwellings’ insulation levels.@en

The pursuing of inter-regional power transmission to address renewable power curtailment in China has resulted in disappointing gains. This paper evaluates the case of local green ammonia production to address this issue. An improved optimization-based simulation model is applied to simulate lifetime green manufacturing, and the impacts of main institutional incentives and oxygen synergy on investment are analysed. Levelized cost of ammonia is estimated at around 820 USD/t, which is about twice the present price. The operating rate, ammonia price, the electrical efficiency of electrolysers and the electricity price are found to be the key factors in green ammonia investment. Carbon pricing and value-added tax exemption exert obvious influences on the energy transition in China. A subsidy of approximately 450 USD/t will be required according to the present price; however, this can be reduced by 100 USD/t through oxygen synergy. Compared to inter-regional power transmission, green ammonia production shows both economic and environmental advantages. Therefore, we propose an appropriate combination of both options to address renewable power curtailment and the integration of oxygen manufacturing into hydrogen production. We consider the findings and policy implications will contribute to addressing renewable power curtailment and boosting the hydrogen economy in China.@en

The Netherlands aims at reducing natural gas consumption for heating in the housing sector. Although homeowners are responsible for replacing their heating systems and improving dwelling insulation, they are not always able to make individual decisions. Some projects require group decisions within and between buildings. We use an agent-based modelling and simulation approach to explore how these individual and group decisions would influence natural gas consumption and heating costs in an illustrative neighbourhood, under a set of assumptions. We model individual household preferences over combinations of insulation and heating systems as a lifetime cost calculation with implicit discount rates, and we use quorum constraints to represent group decisions. We model three fiscal policies and a policy to disconnect all dwellings from the natural gas network. Results show that the disconnection policy was the only necessary and sufficient condition to incentivize households to replace their heating systems and that group decisions influenced the alternatives that were chosen. Since results were influenced by group decisions within buildings and by the market discount rate, we recommend further research regarding policies around these topics. Future work can apply our approach to case studies, incorporate new empirical knowledge, and explore group decisions in other contexts.

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Green ammonia production as an important application for propelling the upcoming hydrogen economy has not been paid much attention by China, the world's largest ammonia producer. As a result, related studies are limited. This paper explores potential supply chain design and planning strategies of green ammonia production in the next decade of China with a case study in Inner Mongolia. A hybrid optimization-based simulation approach is applied, considering traditional optimization approaches are insufficient to address uncertainties and dynamics in a long-term energy transition. Results show that the production cost of green ammonia will be at least twice that of the current level due to higher costs of hydrogen supply. Production accounts for the largest share of the total expense of green hydrogen (~80 %). The decline of electricity and electrolyser prices are key in driving down the overall costs. In addition, by-product oxygen is also considered in the model to assess its economic benefits. We found that by-product oxygen sales could partly reduce the total expense of green hydrogen (~12 % at a price of USD 85/t), but it also should be noted that the volatile price of oxygen may pose uncertainties and risks to the effectiveness of the offset. Since the case study may represent the favourable conditions in China due to the abundant renewable energy resources and large-scale ammonia industry in this region, we propose to take a moderate step towards green ammonia production, and policies should be focused on reducing the electricity price and capital investments in green hydrogen production. We assume the findings and implications are informative to planning future green ammonia production in China.

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This work analyses the effectiveness of an off-grid solar photovoltaic system for the charging of electric vehicles (EVs) in a long-term parking lot. The effectiveness of charging is investigated through analysis of the states of charge (SoC) at departure of EVs plugged in at the parking lot over the simulated year. Although the share of vehicles leaving with inadequate charge over the entire year is small, this share is relatively high during low irradiance winter months. We show that an increase in efficiency of the solar modules used in the system and an increase in the minimum duration of time spent at the parking lot are effective within limits at improving charging adequacy. We then formulate three strategies to allocate the available energy in the system with the objective of reducing the number of vehicles leaving at lower SoCs: 1) curtailment of charging beyond 80% state of charge, 2) prioritised charging of vehicles at low SoCs and 3) prioritised charging based on both SoC and time before departure. We identify the strategy prioritising vehicles with low state of charge to be most effective, but performance in the worst month remains a challenge for the location considered.

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Global climate agreements call for action and an integrated perspective on mobility, energy and overall consumption. Municipalities in dense, urban areas are challenged with facilitating this transition with limited space and energy resources, and with future uncertainties. One important aspect of the transition is the adoption of electric vehicles, which includes the adequate design of charging infrastructure. Another important goal is a modal shift in transportation. This study investigated over 80 urban mobility policy measures that are in the policy roadmap of two of the largest municipalities of the Netherlands. This analysis consists of an inventory of policy measures, an evaluation of their environmental effects and conceptualizations of the policy objectives and conditions within the mobility transitions. The findings reveal that the two municipalities have similarities in means, there is still little anticipation of future technology and policy conditions could be further satisfied by introducing tailored measures for specific user groups.@en

In 2018, the Dutch national government announced its decision to end natural gas extraction. This decision posed a challenge for local governments (municipalities); they have to organise a heat supply that is natural gas-free. Energy models can decrease the complexity of this challenge, but some challenges hinder their effective use in decision-making. The main research question of this paper is: What are the perceived advantages and limitations of energy models used by municipalities within their data-driven decision-making process concerning the natural-gas free heating transition? To answer this question, literature on energy models, data-driven policy design and modelling practices were reviewed, and based on this, nine propositions were formulated. The propositions were tested by reflecting on data from case studies of ten municipalities, including 21 experts interviews. Results show that all municipalities investigated, use or are planning to use modelling studies to develop planning documents of their own, and that more than half of the municipalities use modelling studies at some point in their local heating projects. Perceived advantages of using energy models were that the modelling process provides perspective for action, financial and socio-economic insights, transparency and legitimacy and means to start useful discussions. Perceived limitations include that models and modelling results were considered too abstract for analysis of local circumstances, not user-friendly and highly complex. All municipalities using modelling studies were found to hire external expertise, indicating that the knowledge and skill level that municipal officials have is insufficient to model independently.@en

Integrated community energy systems (ICESs) are a modern development of local energy systems by integrating distributed energy resources and local communities. Cost allocation is one of the key issues affecting the success of ICESs. Costs should be allocated to those who cause them, and benefits to those who make the investments. A well-designed cost allocation approach will therefore contribute to a successful implementation and sustainable development of ICESs. This paper presents a general framework for designing cost allocation schemes in ICESs. Various cost allocation methods are proposed to compute the energy bills for local community members in an ICES. In addition, the cost reflectiveness of different cost allocation methods has been computed based on a case study of an ICES to gain insights into how well the costs are allocated. Next to this, the same is also done for the cost predictability to investigate how the energy costs would change in the long term. The results showed that methods with a single energy charging component perform the best in terms of the two criteria. Our assessment can facilitate local community members in selecting a method that satisfies their requirements. Overall, this research contributes to a successful implementation of cost allocation in an ICES.@en

Flexibility coming from consumers in residential and service sectors has received significant attention to deal with uncertainty and variability of renewable energy sources. Since these consumers are too small individually to participate in the electricity markets, their assets can be pooled by an aggregator. The aggregator can implement business models by trading flexibility obtained from these consumers’ assets in different electricity markets. However, the aggregator and the consumers are only motivated to implement a business model, if it is economically feasible. The economic feasibility of a business model depends on (1) financial aspects: how much profit the aggregator makes, and how much money the consumers save, and (2) operational aspects: how the consumers’ assets are operated to increase the financial aspects. This paper aims to provide insights in these operational and financial aspects of the aggregator's business models in residential and service sectors. For this purpose, a literature review is conducted, and a framework is presented to analyze the selected papers on these operational and financial aspects. Based on this analysis, different strategies for the aggregator to implement business models are determined. Moreover, knowledge gaps are identified and several recommendations for future research are provided.

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Integrated community energy systems (ICESs) emerged in the reform of local energy systems during the energy transition. Cost allocation within an ICES is one of the key issues determining the success of ICESs. The costs should be allocated fairly among the members of a local energy community. However, not much research has been directed towards cost allocation in local energy systems. In this paper, firstly, we compare ICESs with large power systems in terms of their physical and cost structure. Secondly, learning from experience with electricity tariff design, we derive cost allocation approaches for ICESs. To this end, we summarize tariff design objectives, cost allocation procedures and the underlying regulatory principles for major tariffication approaches and discuss how these concepts may be applied to cost allocation in ICESs. Discussions on the lessons learned so far and application issues in ICESs are included in this paper. This review paper paves the way for application of fair cost allocation in ICESs by providing a systemic framework.

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Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology could turn electric vehicles (EVs) into a potentially valuable solution to the problem of increased load demand caused by large-scale EV integration. Successful market penetration of V2G relies not only on developing the technology itself, but also on EV drivers' willingness to participate in this technology. This paper aims to explore Dutch EV drivers' preferences for participating in V2G contracts. In particular, we conduct a context-dependent stated choice experiment to examine the impact of EV recharging technology on the V2G contract preferences. Two contexts have been designed: the current EV recharging time and fast recharging. Our results show that in the context of current recharging time, Dutch EV drivers in general prefer not to participate in V2G contracts, while the opposite is true in the context of fast recharging. With regard to specific V2G contract attributes, Dutch EV drivers are most concerned about ‘discharging cycles’. Also important to them is ‘the guaranteed minimum battery level’, but its importance drops significantly in the fast charging context. In addition, ‘monthly remuneration’ and ‘plug-in time’ also influence people's preferences for adopting V2G. From these findings, we draw the implications for the aggregator and policy makers.@en

Integrated community energy systems (ICESs) are a good representative of local energy systems by integrating local distributed energy resources and local communities. It is proposed that costs should be allocated in a socially acceptable manner since there is no regulation in ICESs. In this paper, social acceptance is conceptualized from the dimension of community acceptance considering procedural and distributive justice. A fair process increases the understanding and the acceptance of the cost allocation outcomes, and a fair outcome leads to the acceptance of the cost allocation procedure. This approach adopted the multi-criteria decision-making technique to evaluate social acceptance to select a cost allocation method that was socially acceptable to local community members. The results show that our approach is unique and useful when multiple decision-making groups have to decide together upon the cost allocation method. It is able to provide quantitative results and optimal decisions from a multi-group decision-making perspective. The methodology developed in this research can be applied to any local community energy system to select a cost allocation method. Furthermore, the obtained results can be used by decision-makers to support them in the decision-making process. Based on our approach, policy implications are also analyzed to support the success of cost allocation in ICESs.@en

Welcome from the IEEE PES ISGT Europe 2020 General Chairs On behalf of the Organizing Committee we are very pleased to welcome you to the 10th IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Europe (ISGT-Europe) Conference organized by the Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands, which for more than 175 years has been one of the most prestigious public institutions both at an international and national level in education, research, technological transfer and services in all sectors of engineering. The IEEE-PES ISGT-Europe 2020 conference will stress the need for viewing the role of smart grids in future energy systems as part of the designing, managing and operating qualitatively new complex socio-technical systems. From a technical perspective, solutions to the limited ability to predict stochastic generation and demand can be found in novel technologies such as integrated communications, advanced sensing & measurement technologies, advanced control methods, improved interfaces and decision support. From an economic and regulatory perspective, the challenge is to innovate and deploy new technologies within new business models and market designs, so that the objectives to contribute significantly to a sustainable world will be met. This is the first ISGT conference that is conducted in a virtual fashion. This is a challenge but also an opportunity. Although we would have preferred to welcome the ISGT community in the beautiful city of the Hague located in South-Holland, we are happy to host you virtually this time. We kept the classical format of a conference with regards to timing and content, and tried to replicate the interactive elements such as discussions or social interaction with on-line tools. Conferences are - besides learning the newest trends and developments - for meeting peers and networking after all. A clearly positive aspect of virtual conferences such as this one are reduced costs, both in conference organization (and in attendee fees ) and travel. Still, we hope that we will meet soon again face to face and enjoy a few days together. We would like to thank all the conference sponsors and everyone that supported us in setting this IEEE PES ISGT-Europe 2020 up, from IEEE PES, the Technical Review Committee to the local team at TU Delft and wish everyone a fruitful and engaging conference. We look forward to meeting you virtually at the 10th IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Europe (ISGT-Europe) Conference. @en

Aggregation of sufficiently large electric vehicle (EV) fleets and control over their charging schedules enables aggregators to utilise the flexibility of EV charging in the Day Ahead Market. Optimising the charge scheduling of such fleets enables time-shifting of electricity demand to hours when electricity is cheaper, reducing the electricity cost for charging the entire fleet. Time shifting with scheduled charging is expected to influence the average carbon intensity of the energy used by these vehicles. This work aims to quantify the change in the carbon intensity of energy used by smart charged vehicles. It uses real data collected from over 55, 000 home charging sessions from 1031 chargepoints in the Netherlands in 2018. A simulation was made with a commercial smart charging algorithm to create a scheduled charging profile ex post from the historic EV charging dataset. The simulation resulted in an average price reduction of electricity for the fleet of about 25% relative to unscheduled charging of the same fleet over the same period. The time dependent average carbon intensity of electricity consumed in the Netherlands was used to calculate the mean carbon intensity of the electricity used to charge the fleet over the period in the scheduled and unscheduled charging cases. The results revealed a small decrease in carbon intensity by 1.2%. Analysis reveals that price optimisation can have large effects on the mean carbon intensity of individual sessions in the Dutch grid, but the net effect is averaged out over a large number of sessions and over the year.

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World biofuel production and trade have grown exponentially in the last decade. Nevertheless, the interaction between the markets for oilseeds (food/feed/bioenergy) and liquid vegetable oil-based biofuels is overwhelmingly complex and thus not well understood. In this study, we developed a spatially explicit agent-based model to provide insights into the effect of farmers' behaviour on trade flows and biodiesel production and to shed light on the influence of import tariffs for both palm oil and biodiesel on system behaviour. This new approach enables us to assess different types of rational economic behaviour for the adoption of crops by farmers. Results show that model outcomes can vary substantially based on the assumptions made concerning the behaviour of farmers. Moreover, we found that biodiesel trade and production are more sensitive to a change in the EU-28's biodiesel import tariff than to a change in the EU-28's palm oil import tariff. Overall, our results show that social processes, actors' heterogeneity, and institutions play an important role in the behaviour of the system.

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