This work investigates the formation of the recrystallisation microstructure and texture of various single-phase ferrite low-carbon steels that were rolled at different temperatures and of which the deformation microstructure was characterized by high resolution electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Three cases are considered: (i) cold-rolled interstitial-free (IF) steel, warm-rolled IF steel at 550 °C and warm rolled Fe-Si steel at 900 °C (below the austenitization temperature due to Si). It is well-known that the deformation texture after flat rolling of single-ferrite low carbon steels exhibits the characteristic α/γ-fiber texture, i.e. <110>//Rolling Direction (RD) and <111>//Normal Direction (ND), irrespective of the rolling temperature, as long as there is no concurrent phase transformation. However, different recrystallisation textures appear as a function of the rolling temperature. Generally speaking, the γ-fiber recrystallisation texture is obtained after cold rolling, whereas the θ-fiber components ( <100>//ND) intensify at the expense of the γ-fiber orientations with increasing rolling temperature. Although these phenomena are well-known, the reasons for this behavior in terms of preferential orientation selection remain as yet unclear. In the present paper, recrystallisation microstructures and textures are simulated with a full-field cellular-automaton (CA) description, whereby recrystallisation from its incipient stage is considered as a process of sub-grain coarsening controlled by the well-known physical laws of driving force and kinetics. The simulations integrate in one single model the various conditions that give rise to the observed temperature dependence of the evolving static recrystallisation texture and microstructure. The different rolling temperatures will give rise to different initial microstructures at the onset of recrystallisation with noticeable variations in short-range orientation gradients in γ and θ-fiber orientations, respectively. The mere application of local grain-boundary migration laws on the topology of the deformation structure, without imposing any specific nucleation selection criterion, will properly balance the dominance of γ-fiber grains after cold-rolling and θ-fiber orientations after warm rolling. Finally, the well-known nucleation of Goss orientations ({110}<001>) in shear bands occurring in γ-fiber grains is also simulated in this single conceptual framework.

In an industrial context, selecting an appropriate crystal plasticity (CP) model that balances efficiency and accuracy when modelling deformation texture (DT) is crucial. This study compared DTs in IF-steel after undergoing cold rolling reductions using different CP models for two input texture scenarios. Three mean-field (MFCP) models were utilised in their most basic configurations, without considering grain fragmentation or strain hardening, in addition to a dislocation-density-based full-field (FFCP) model. The study quantitatively compared the results from the MFCP models with those from the FFCP models. Furthermore, all CP model results were compared with experimental textures obtained from electron back-scatter diffraction (EBSD) experiments. The findings revealed that certain MFCP models could predict deformation textures as accurately as the FFCP models. Notably, one of the MFCP models exhibited a superior match with experimental textures for cold rolling reductions at 60%. Upon closer examination of specific crystallographic components, it was observed that MFCP models tended to predict a stronger {111}〈211〉 component, while the full-field model favours the {111}〈011〉 component. It is crucial to emphasise the importance of quantifying the texture within individual grains when assessing the macro-level deformation texture in rolling simulations.

This study investigates the sub-structure of IF steel in three conditions: cold rolled, statically recovered, and warm rolled. After both cold and warm rolling, the steel exhibits the typical 〈110〉//RD and 〈111〉//ND fiber textures. Considering the short-range misorientation gradient ∆θ/∆x to assess locally stored energy variations, it was observed that 〈111〉//ND grains exhibit significantly higher gradients than 〈001〉//ND grains in all conditions. In the statically recovered conditions, the ∆θ/∆x values are significantly reduced compared to the cold rolled condition, but these values are significantly higher than those of the dynamically recovered after warm rolling. The strongly reduced orientation gradients in the 〈111〉//ND grains after warm rolling may reduce the nucleation potency of these orientations in the ensuing recrystallization. This study enhances our knowledge of deformation microstructure as a function of rolling temperature and is relevant in explaining reported differences in annealing textures during static recrystallization after cold vs warm rolling.

Cup drawing is a benchmark experiment frequently used to validate anisotropic constitutive models and multiscale crystal plasticity codes for yield locus prediction. Earing of the cup rim and thickness variation along the cup wall are sensitive to plastic anisotropy. This test was implemented on an industrial forming press and applied to 85 mm diameter disks of commercial AA1100, AA3103, and AA5005 alloy sheet. Cup geometry was determined using a laser probe coordinate measurement machine (CMM). Finite element models (FEM) were developed with ABAQUS Explicit software and a user-defined subroutine for the anisotropic yield locus based on the hierarchical multiscale model (HMS). As the coordinate cloud produced by the CMM is unrelated to the nodes of the deformed FEM-mesh, both were fitted to a polynomial-Fourier series expansion. After cleaning and correction of the CMM data, point-by-point comparison can be performed between model and experiment. For AA1100, the position of the ears was correctly identified but their magnitude was underestimated. Excellent coincidence was found for AA5005, with strong ears at 0 and 90°. The small ears at -30° and 30° and secondary ears at 90° were correctly predicted for AA3013.

This study explores the evolution of solidification microstructure of a laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) martensitic stainless steel during solution annealing and aging. Quasi in-situ experiments using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) revealed that the finer, more equiaxed microstructure below the melt pool was susceptible to recrystallization and grain growth during solution annealing. The two distinct solidification microstructures below and inside the melt pool converged into a uniform grain morphology after solution annealing and aging processes. Graphical Abstract: (Figure presented.)

Rolling and annealing is a crucial technology to produce electrical steel sheets. This technology is not just aimed to control the geometry of steel sheets but more importantly to enhance the magnetic properties of the final products via appropriate microstructure and crystallographic texture. In this study, the evolution of microstructures and textures of an Fe-1.2 wt.% Si alloy through the entire processing route (from reheating, warm rolling to annealing) is monitored by electron back-scatter diffraction. Plastic flows of the material during conventional and asymmetric rolling are analyzed in detail based on geometric parameters of the rolling gaps. Deformation textures are accurately predicted by the full-constraint Taylor and advanced Lamel (ALAMEL) crystal plasticity models. The development of recrystallization textures is accounted for by the plastically stored energy in deformed crystals, which in turn is approximated by the plastically dissipated power (i.e., the Taylor factor) as predicted by the full constraint Taylor model. Although asymmetric warm rolling does not produce an improved texture or microstructure for electrical steels, the present study provides useful information on the evolution of the recrystallization microstructure and texture in steels with a complex strain history after asymmetric warm rolling.

This study examines the interface layer between a high-strength low-alloy steel and an overlaying austenitic stainless steel as deposited through wire arc additive manufacturing in a bi-metal block. By utilizing optical and electron microscopy techniques, and accompanied by phenomenological and thermodynamic modeling, the work elucidates on the nature of the distinct microstructural features at a new level of detail. Results showcase martensite in the form of a band along the fusion line of the first dissimilar layer, as well as in segregated islands. Within the same bead, yet away from the fusion line, an austenite matrix is identified alongside a large phase fraction of primary ferrite and sparse bainite. These findings enhance our understanding of the nature of the heterogeneous microstructure at the interface of a bi-metal build and establish empirical evidence for future modeling of microstructural development. Supplementary characterization reveals the impact of these microstructural heterogeneities on bulk mechanical performance. Hardness indents exhibit varied results along the interface, peaking at martensite islands with values up to 370HV_0.2, surpassing the neighboring matrix by 50%. Under quasi-static tensile loading, bi-metallic specimens display strain partitioning along the fusion boundary, as confirmed by Digital Image Correlation. When compared to the adjoining stainless steel, the diluted interface layer exhibits superior strength (σ_y: 411 MPa) and comparable ductility (24%), leading to necking and failure away from this region. These results help predict the structural performance of bi-metal parts, and build a base for further research in more intricate loading scenarios, such as crack propagation processes.

While the grain size effect (GSE) is universally observed in polycrystalline metals and alloys, extended dislocation pileups (DPUs) at grain boundaries (GBs) are rarely observed. Although this discrepancy was noticed over 50 years ago, DPUs are still widely accepted as the explanation for the GSE, often expressed as the Hall-Petch (HP) relationship. To provide a quantitative assessment of the pileup hypothesis, four classical pileup models were compared to three sets of numerical calculations, spanning a grain size range from 25 nm to 25mm. To do so, the stress field and Peach-Köhler force for short dislocation segments and circular dislocation loops were calculated as closed-form expressions and simplified to the case of pileups. Published values for the Hall-Petch constant provide the reference for estimating the critical tip stress for transmission of plastic strain from one grain to its neighbour. The results are compared in terms of consistency between models and between models and experiments. Different assumptions on the pileup geometry induce important variations in the results. Tendencies found in the numerical models resemble the trends marked in compilations of experimental results; predicted values for dislocation density and plastic shear upon yielding disagree with commonly accepted values. Added to the scarceness of experimental observation, the analysis indicates that DPUs play a role in polycrystal plasticity but do not consistently explain the GSE.

The phase transformations, microstructure and properties of two Medium-Mn processed via quenching and partitioning steels were compared in this contribution and a new strategy for controlling mechanical properties by introducing and controlling cold-worked ferrite prior to heat treatment is proposed. It was found that during heating, the recovery and recrystallization of cold-worked ferrite compete with austenitization, thereby inhibiting the coarsening of austenite. The cold-worked ferrite interface will significantly delay the austenitization kinetics during the partitioning local equilibrium stage compared to martensite. These results lead to a diverse parent austenite, as well as a refined martensite substructure. As a result, the randomly distributed variants increase the number of effective grain boundaries, thus enhancing yield strength. The intercritical annealing process at a temperature of 860 °C resulted in the formation of fresh martensite-retained austenite (M/RA) constituents exhibiting a remarkably fine (<2 μm) and uniform grain morphology. Such microstructure yielded substantial improvement in both the strength and ductility of the steel. The proposed treatment led to excellent elongation (24%) at fracture, combined with very high ultimate tensile strength and yield strength of 1345 MPa and 1163 MPa, respectively, of the steel, resulting in a product of strength and elongation that exceed 32 GPa%.

This work analyses the effect of annealing conditions on tribolayer formation in copper under dry sliding conditions. Cold rolled material and samples annealed during 15, 30 and 45 min at 600 °C show an increase in grain size, decrease in hardness and increase in toughness and ductility with time. Electron backscattered diffraction maps describe the severe plastic deformation of a nanostructured tribolayer. Friction coefficients decrease with annealing times, while surface damage diminishes. Wear is lower in the softer material. This is explained by the energy required to produce surface damage, in combination with the energy transmitted to the substrate by friction.

This article details the ESAFORM Benchmark 2021. The deep drawing cup of a 1 mm thick, AA 6016-T4 sheet with a strong cube texture was simulated by 11 teams relying on phenomenological or crystal plasticity approaches, using commercial or self-developed Finite Element (FE) codes, with solid, continuum or classical shell elements and different contact models. The material characterization (tensile tests, biaxial tensile tests, monotonic and reverse shear tests, EBSD measurements) and the cup forming steps were performed with care (redundancy of measurements). The Benchmark organizers identified some constitutive laws but each team could perform its own identification. The methodology to reach material data is systematically described as well as the final data set. The ability of the constitutive law and of the FE model to predict Lankford and yield stress in different directions is verified. Then, the simulation results such as the earing (number and average height and amplitude), the punch force evolution and thickness in the cup wall are evaluated and analysed. The CPU time, the manpower for each step as well as the required tests versus the final prediction accuracy of more than 20 FE simulations are commented. The article aims to guide students and engineers in their choice of a constitutive law (yield locus, hardening law or plasticity approach) and data set used in the identification, without neglecting the other FE features, such as software, explicit or implicit strategy, element type and contact model.

The present paper investigates the role of parent phase topology on a crystallographic variant selection rule. This rule assumes that product phase nuclei appear at certain grain boundaries in the parent structure, such that a specific crystallographic orientation relationship is observed with both parent grains at either side of the grain boundary. The specific crystallographic orientation correspondence considered here is the Young–Kurdjumow–Sachs (YKS) orientation relationship <112>90^◦ (which exhibits 24 symmetrical equivalents). The aforementioned relationship is characteristic of phase transformations in low-carbon steel grades. It is shown that, for different parent phase textures, ~20% of the grain boundaries comply with the double YKS condition allowing for a tolerance of 5^◦, ignoring the presence of topology in the parent phase microstructure. The presented model allows for connecting the presence of a specific parent phase topology with the condition of the double YKS variant selection rule in a number of practical cases: (i) for hot rolled Ti–Interstitial Free (IF) steel with and without Mn addition, (ii) for cold rolled IF steel exhibiting very strong texture memory after forward and reverse α ⇋ γ phase transformation and (iii) for a martensitic transformation in a Fe–8.5% Cr steel. It is shown that the double YKS variant selection criterion may explain several specific features of the observed transformation textures, while assuming a non-correlated arbitrary pair topology of the parent austenite structure (implying that for N parent orientations N/2 pairs are selected in an arbitrary manner).

In this work, the effect of heating rate on the phase transformation temperatures was investigated using dilatometry analysis. Continuous heating and isothermal holding above Ac₃ temperature on microstructural evolutions in additively manufactured (AM) parts of Fe-Cr-Ni maraging stainless steel were studied. The microstructural features developed within the heating processes were characterized employing electron backscatter diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. Austenite reversion was found to take place in two steps for the AM parts by a diffusive mechanism as well as the precipitation reactions. Although grain refinement occurred during the austenite reversion of the continuously heated samples, the microstructure showed a coarser grain size after isothermal heating. The crystallographic orientations developed after the heating processes were different from those of the initial ones implying the absence of the austenite memory effect.

The deformation performance of maraging steel samples fabricated using the laser powder bed fusion technique was evaluated using the split Hopkinson torsion bar (SHTB) test. Thin-walled tubular maraging steel samples were deformed under dynamic torsional loading at strain rates of 260 s⁻¹ to 720 s⁻¹ using twist angles varying from 3 to 12°. Microstructural and textural investigations were carried out on deformed samples using the electron backscatter diffraction technique and scanning electron microscopy. Results showed that maraging steel samples fractured when deformed using an angle of twist of 12° and strain rate of 650 s⁻¹. As a result of deformation localization at high strain rates, adiabatic shear bands are developed in some thin-walled tubular torsion specimens deformed using the 12-degree angle of twist, leading to fracture. Textural studies showed that texture weakening occurred with an increment in strain rate ascribable to grain fragmentation. In this study, two models (empirically and semi-empirically) were employed for describing maraging steel performance during high strain-rate torsional loading. Simulation results based on Kobayashi-Odd and Nemat-Nasser models agreed well with the experimental data.

The microstructure development and texture evolution during friction stir welding of a dual-phase DP700 steel were investigated. Based on electron backscattered diffraction analysis, it was found that continuous dynamic recrystallization and discontinuous dynamic recrystallization are the operative recovery mechanisms for the ferrite phase in the stir zone. However, in addition to these mechanisms, geometrically dynamic recrystallization is also involved within the thermomechanically affected zone which is due to the lower strain rates in the thermomechanically affected zone. However, the continuous dynamic recrystallization was the predominant recovery mechanism for ferrite in both the stir zone and thermomechanically affected zone. Micro-texture examination showed that FSW develops typical shear texture components such as D₁, D₂ and F as well as the cube recrystallization texture for the ferrite phase within the stir zone. However, because of different thermomechanical conditions in various regions of the thermomechanically affected zone, additional shear texture components are developed, such as E, J and J¯ together with as D₁, D₂ and F, which were already observed in the stir zone. The absence of the cube recrystallization texture of ferrite in thermomechanically affected zone is attributed to insufficient recrystallization due to lowered strain and temperature in this zone. Study of the retained austenite constituent revealed that both shear textures, B and B¯ as well as recrystallization textures are developed in this phase within both the stir zone and thermomechanically affected zone.

The heat-affected zone (HAZ) softening is considered one of the most significant challenges during welding of ferrite–martensite dual-phase (DP) steels. In fact, the strain localization in the softened area results in a premature fracture that degrades the mechanical properties of the joint. Herein, the objective is to investigate the effectiveness of improved cooling using a high thermal diffusivity backing plate (BP) to reduce HAZ softening and enhance the mechanical properties of friction stir-welded DP700 steel. Accordingly, friction stir butt welding of DP700 steel was conducted using copper and mild steel BPs. The findings show that the replacement of steel BP with copper significantly reduces the weld temperature. It is also observed that the thermal diffusivity of the BP has a substantial effect on the microstructure development and mechanical properties of the welded joint. Increasing the thermal diffusivity of the BP results in a reduction of HAZ softening from 20 to 7 HV and improving tensile strength and total elongation of the joint by 40 MPa and 6.2%, respectively. Work hardening behavior and absorbed energy before the fracture are significantly improved by the replacement of steel BP with a copper.

Due to high local cooling rates and non-equilibrium directional solidification conditions, selective laser melting (SLM) processed metals exhibit microstructural and textural features significantly different from the conventionally processed ones. The evolution of crystallographic orientations in a maraging stainless steel (commercially known as stainless steel CX) sample fabricated by the SLM process was studied through experimental and modelling approaches Electron backscattering diffraction analysis showed that the dominant texture components in martensite and austenite phases are <111>|| building direction and <011>|| building direction, respectively. Texture simulation indicated that the formation of crystallographic orientations in the studied sample is the result of two consecutive phase transformations, from initially solidified delta ferrite phase with dominant cube fiber texture to austenite and austenite to martensite.

The current investigation presents a breakdown analysis of the elastoplastic behavior of commercially pure aluminum pre-strained via severe plastic deformation (SPD) and tested in tension. The tensile samples selected, owing to their prior SPD, had the gradient microstructure from the fragmentation stage as well as a homogeneous equiaxed structure from the steady-state regime. Except for the regions of low deformation and steady-state of SPD, the microstructures of pre-strained material were largely dominated by the presence of geometrically necessary boundaries. During tensile straining, dislocation strengthening contributed more to the overall material strength in fragmentation stage samples, while grain boundary strengthening played a major role in the steady-state stage samples. The dislocation density evolution rate-based approach predicted a more active role for the dynamic annihilation/recovery events in the SPD material when compared to the fully recrystallized condition. This could explain the drastic drop in tensile elongation of the pre-strained material as well as the enhancement in uniform and post-necking elongation with the gradual increase in the amount of pre-strain. A plastic instability condition based on the dislocation density evolution approach successfully accounted for the observed stable deformation limits in the coarse- and fine-grained material.

The final carbon content of austenite in equilibrium with tempered martensite can be estimated by the so-called constrained carbon equilibrium in the presence of carbide (CCEθ) model. However, the linear predictions under CCEθ deviate from both the initial and the experimentally measured carbon content. A modified approach to the CCEθ model is proposed, which predicts an increase of the carbon content in austenite with the decrease of temperature below the onset of martensitic transformation.