2D-g-C₃N₄ nanosheet was prepared and employed for the adsorption of elemental mercury (Hg⁰). The g-C₃N₄ was analyzed through X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) methods, and the results showed that the prepared sample was well-defined 2D-nanosheet. The 2D-g-C₃N₄ sorbent exhibited a high Hg⁰ removal efficiency (> 90%) at the condition of temperature 120 °C. To investigate the mechanism of Hg⁰ adsorption on the 2D-g-C₃N₄ surface, corresponding theoretical exploration based on the first principle prediction and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) test was implemented. The DFT calculation results showed that Hg⁰ was strongly bound to the B₁ site of the g-C₃N₄ surface with an adsorption energy change of -162.2 kJ mol⁻¹, the equilibrium distance of Hg-C was 3.473 Å, and electron transfer between Hg and C atoms was 0.02. The results of XPS showed the main species of mercury was HgO on the surface of 2D-g-C₃N₄ sample and the interaction between C₃N₄ surface and Hg⁰ was physisorption. This study provides a demonstration of proof-of-concept demonstration that g-C₃N₄ is a promising sorbent capable of capturing Hg⁰, and presents in-depth understanding of Hg⁰ adsorption mechanism on 2D-g-C₃N₄ sorbent.

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In recent years, volatile fatty acid (VFA) production through anaerobic fermentation of sewage sludge, instead of methane production, has been regarded as a high-value and promising roadmap for sludge stabilization and resource recovery. This review first presents the effects of some essential factors that influence VFA production and composition. In the second part, we present an extensive analysis of conventional pretreatment and co-fermentation strategies ultimately addressed to improving VFA production and composition. Also, the effectiveness of these approaches is summarized in terms of sludge degradation, hydrolysis rate, and VFA production and composition. According to published studies, it is concluded that some pretreatments such as alkaline and thermal pretreatment are the most effective ways to enhance VFA production from sewage sludge. The possible reasons for the improvement of VFA production by different methods are also discussed. Finally, this review also highlights several current technical challenges and opportunities in VFA production with spectrum control, and further related research is proposed.

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Membrane fouling is still the main obstacle that hinders the development and implementation of anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR). In conventional upflow anaerobic reactors, sludge at different height usually presents certain differences in characteristics in terms of particle size, etc. The immersion depth of membrane modules in anaerobic reactors can also influence the fouling of membrane. Thus, it is of great interest to investigate the fouling mechanism with the membrane installed at different heights in reactors. The filtration performance and sludge properties were investigated at different heights of AnMBR. The fouling of membrane in the middle position was severer than that in the top and bottom positions. The total resistance of membrane in the top, middle, and bottom positions was 27.31 × 10¹¹ m⁻¹, 34.67 × 10¹¹ m⁻¹, and 25.29 × 10¹¹ m⁻¹, respectively. By comparing the characteristics and structure of bulk sludge and cake layer at three heights, the bulk sludge in the middle position presented higher content of soluble microbial products (SMP) and finer flocs, and the cake layer was also denser. The results obtained in this study indicated that small size of sludge flocs as well as adhesion of SMP might be the major factors governing membrane fouling at different height in the AnMBR.

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White rot fungi using P. sajor-caju and T. versicolor was examined to pretreat raw champost (lignin-rich) and oyster champost (cellulose-rich) for enhancement of fermentative volatile fatty acid (VFA) production. Results showed that the efficiency of pretreatment and VFA production was influenced by the fungal strains and substrates. P. sajor-caju pretreatment showed preferential lignin degradation on raw champost and obtained the maximum VFA yield (203 ± 9 mg COD/g VS_added), which increased by 60% and 74% compared to that of control and unpretreated champost, respectively. For cellulose-rich oyster champost, however, fungal pretreatment decreased VFA yield compared to unpretreated champost. Further mechanisms analysis demonstrated the two strains grow and secreted ligninolytic enzymes, which substantially influenced the characteristics of two champosts such as cellulose/lignin ratio and morphology in different extents. P. sajor-caju was highly efficient to lignin-rich champost on selectively degrading lignin and further enhancing digestibility such as VFA production.

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Phosphorus has been successfully eliminated from wastewater by biological techniques of enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) process, which relies on a specific microbiota of polyphosphate accumulating organisms (PAOs) that accumulate phosphate as polyphosphates (poly-P). Most methods for quantification of poly-P pools suffer from low accuracy and specificity. More powerful and implementable P-analysis tools are required for poly-P quantification, which will help in improved evaluation of processes in laboratory and full-scale EBPR systems. This study developed two methods to quantify poly-P pools by releasing the poly-P from the cell. During experimental optimization, it was observed that two different methods resulted in the highest phosphate release: acetate addition at a pH of 4.8 and exposure to EDTA solution with a concentration of 1% (w/v). Treatment with EDTA resulted in a higher amount of phosphate release from all sludge samples. This was characterized by P-release of 1.5–2.5 times higher than the control tests. In contrast, treatments with acetate addition at a low pH exhibited that P-release depended upon the types of the sludge samples. The highest P-release amount and rate were found in highly-enriched PAO sludge samples, but with fewer influences on the sludge collected from WWTP, which may be attributed to the lower fraction of PAOs in the sludge. Overall, the proposed approaches to quantify the poly-P concentration can be applied in simple, user-friendly, and cost-effective ways.

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Anaerobic digestion (AD) has been commercially operated worldwide in full scale as a resource recovery technology underpinning a circular economy. However, problems such as a long start-up time, or system instability, have been reported in response to operational shocks. These issues are usually linked to the dynamics of the functional microbiota in AD. Exploring the microbiota-functionality nexus (MFN) could be pivotal to understand the reasons behind these difficulties, and hence improving AD performance. Here we present a systematic MFN study based on 138 samples taken from 20 well-profiled lab-scale AD reactors operated for up to two years. All the reactors were operated in the same lab within the same period of time using the same methodology to harvest physio-chemical and molecular data, including key monitoring parameters, qPCR, and 16S sequencing results. The results showed a core bacterial microbiota prevailing in all reactor types, including Bacillus, Clostridium, Bacteroides, Eubacterium, Cytophaga, Anaerophaga, and Syntrophomonas, while various methanogens dominated different communities due to different inocula origins, reactor temperatures, or salinity levels. This core bacterial microbiota well correlated with biogas production (Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.481, p < 0.0001). Such strong correlation was even comparable to that between the biogas production and the methanogenic 16S rRNA gene content (Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.481, p < 0.0001). The results indicated that AD performance only modestly correlated with microbial diversity, a key governing factor. AD microbiota was neither functionally redundant nor plastic, and a high variety in communities can exhibit a strong difference in reactor performance. Our study demonstrates the importance of a core bacterial microbiota in AD and supports inspiring considerations for design, bioaugmentation, and operational strategies of AD reactors in the future.

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This work focuses on the photocatalytic removal of recalcitrant organic pollutants in water treatment. Based on facile precipitation reaction, we fabricated a photocatalyst (PbCrO₄) in single crystals that present evident response to visible light and employed the catalyst in the photocatalytic decomposition of microcystin-LR (MC-LR). In the degradation test using the nanorods with prepared PbCrO₄ photocatalyst, a 100% removal efficiency (27 min reaction) and a kinetics constant of 0.1356 min⁻¹ were achieved. Such a high performance of PbCrO₄ in photocatalytic conversion of MC-LR was ascribed to its high carrier separation efficiency, positive valence band (VB) position, and good delocalization of VB and conduction band (CB). The test of electron spin-resonance resonance (ESR) demonstrated that excessive free [rad]OH radicals were produced during the PbCrO₄ photocatalysis of MC-LR. The density functional theory (DFT) and LC/MS/MS technology were employed to ascertain the intermediates during the MC-LR photocatalytic degradation. The major intermediates were resulted from the attack of hydroxyl radicals to the ADDA side chains of MC-LR structure. This study provides a proof-of-concept strategy to develop effective photocatalysts to efficiently produce [rad]OH radicals for the visible-light induced photocatalytic degradation of MC-LR in water.

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Life cycle assessment (LCA) has proven to be a useful tool in assessing environmental technologies in a retrospective manner. To fully uncover the environmental improvement potential while advancing technologies under technical and environmental constraints, this study recommended approaching the LCA proactively to assess the progress of parameter optimization before determining critical parameters. To that end, the present work introduced a multimethod eight-step (MMES) analysis scheme, which included an integration of LCA with Plackett-Burman multifactorial design, central composite design, and multi-objective optimization. By creating a large number of scenarios through experimental design, we jointly optimized technical efficiency and environmental sustainability, which allowed for the identification of critical parameters that likely had contradictory influences on different objectives. Through a case study concerning the bioaugmentation of constructed wetland (CW), we applied the MMES scheme to optimize the culture conditions of the strain Arthrobacter sp. ZXY-2 for enhanced atrazine removal. The results showed that, by reducing the Na₂HPO₄·12H₂O concentration from 6.5 g/L to 6 g/L in the culture condition, we decreased the freshwater ecotoxicity potential and maintained a high level of atrazine removal. Regarding the production process of microbial inocula, the strain ZXY-2 grown at the optimized culture reduced the total environmental impact from 13% to 50% compared with the original culture and helped the CW exhibit more favorable atrazine-removal performance. Taken together, the case study demonstrated the effectiveness of using the MMES scheme for parameter optimization of environmental technologies. For future development, the MMES scheme should extend the application to more fields and refine uncertainty management.

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Deep treatment is a common approach to enhance pollutant removal for biological wastewater treatment technologies (BWTTs), and life cycle assessment (LCA) holds substantial advantages to support process optimization. However, there lacks of LCA-based benchmarks that cover human-nature nexuses and stakeholder involvement, which limits the guidance and eco-design of BWTTs. This study proposed a decision-support system (DSS) by linking LCA with Water Quality Model and Conjoint Analysis. Three major findings were identified based on a demonstrative case (constructed wetland bioaugmented by dosing different microbial inocula): (1) Increasing bacterial intensities would achieve net environmental improvement, but it might not apply to all cases; (2) Making full use of natural self-purification capacity could partly replace the functions of BWTTs; (3) Stakeholders would concern aquatic environmental improvement when receiving river that had limited environmental capacity. Overall, the DSS provided a data-driven platform for screening options before determinations were made to constrain wastewater treatment sustainability.

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Two types of novel municipal sewage sludge (SS) combined TiO ₂ photocatalysts (ST ₁ and ST ₂ ) were synthesized through calcination treatment under different atmospheres (air and N ₂ ). The morphology, structure, and chemical states of photocatalysts were characterized by SEM, XRD, EDS, FT-IR, Raman UV–Vis, BET, and TG-IR. The results showed that ST ₂ consisted of a mesoporous graphene-like structure (20.02 nm) displayed exhibited better visible light photocatalytic performances and the highest BET surface area and pore volume (92.97 m ² g ⁻¹ and 0.46 cm ³ /g). The doping of Carbon and transition metals (Al, Mg) in TiO ₂ strengthened visible-light response by lowering the band gap. The photocatalytic ability is evaluated in the degradation of tetracycline, which is a typical antibiotic in the aquatic environment. The ST ₂ photocatalytic efficiency under visible light than that of ST ₁ and TiO ₂ . The enhancement is formed together by porous surface and lower band gap of ST ₂ , which could offer more active sites and facilitate faster electron-hole pair separation. In addition, the sludge-TiO ₂ calcination in N ₂ (ST ₂ ) has the potential to reduce CO ₂ emission while recovering more energy from the sludge, which turned out to be a more cost-effective way to reutilization of sewage sludge compared with that of calcination in air.

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The pyrolysis characteristics and kinetics of pre-dried dewatered sewage sludge under different heating rates (10, 20, and 30 °C/min) were investigated by thermogravimetric analyzer-fourier transform infrared analysis (TG-FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and a heated tubular reactor. The thermal analysis results showed that four weight loss zones (<165, 165–400, 400–600, and >600 °C) were observed in TG curve, and a higher heating rate led to the increase of the maximum devolatilization rate and the higher temperature corresponding to the peak. The activation energy of different heating rate (10, 20, and 30 °C/min) was 70.0, 60.6 and 65.0 kJ/mol, respectively. The FTIR analysis of gaseous products indicated the concentrations of CO₂ and CO increased steadily with the increased heating rate, while the concentration of CH₄ first increased then decreased. Moreover, the yield of gaseous products and bio-oil increased with the increasing of the heating rate. Finally, the surface structure of chars and the chemical properties of bio-oil obtained were characterized using nitrogen adsorption, scanning electron microscopy, elemental analysis and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Overall, the results highlighted that pre-dried dewatered sewage sludge can be effectively converted into biofuel and porous material.

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Determination of appropriate effluent quality limits (EQL) for wastewater treatment plants in China is a complicated process involving multiple factors that need joint consideration. Based on advantages of compiling the energy and material flows as well as the emissions into air, water and soil, life cycle assessment (LCA) presents a standardized approach for evaluation of EQL alternatives. However, challenges arise when incorporating more factors is indispensable, especially for the elements concerning downstream receiving water body, official watershed planning and stakeholder's participation. To this end, an integrated LCA-based decision-support platform named HIT.WATER scheme is proposed, linking the currently available LCA system with Water Quality Model (WQM), Plackett–Burman (PB) design and Conjoint Analysis (CA). A demonstrative case study was conducted to illustrate the processing procedures. Results obtained in the current study show that the officially defined river functions and the downstream cross-section distances resulted in more significant effects on the assessment outcome than other factors such as self-purification coefficients and weighting factors. Nevertheless, the comparisons among EQL alternatives were carried out and the differences were observed, which were dynamic, varying with the changed conditions of either natural factors (e.g. downstream distances) or human factors (e.g. officially defined river functions). Quantitatively presenting the dynamic comparisons to indicate the differences among the alternatives was a principal function of the HIT.WATER scheme. In particular, the approach allows the environmental impacts of EQL examined from various perspectives, which is conducive to the preclusion of “one-size-fits-all” determination with sustainability consideration. Stakeholder's participation was achieved through a transparent decision-making process, and their selection and judgment criterion could be explicitly presented using quantitative metrics. We conclude that the HIT.WATER scheme can be applied to broader scales where the evaluation of paradigm shifts (technological advancement or effluent standard changes) in sewage systems is necessary.

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A novel strategy of liquid fermentation using anaerobic dynamic membrane reactor (AnDMBR) was proposed to enhance volatile fatty acids (VFAs) production from sewage sludge. Results indicated that liquid sludge fermentation in AnDMBR had the potential in commercial VFAs production. VFAs productivity and concentration as well as substrate conversion rate could reach as high as 7.8 kg VFA−COD/m³ d, 60 g/L and 0.38 kg VFA−COD/kg VS, respectively. Moreover, dynamic membrane was stably operated for approximately 70 days. During the operational period, membrane flux was increased from 6.25 to 25 L/m² d and only once online membrane cleaning was implemented. Results of microbial analyses showed bacterial richness and evenness in AnDMBR were increased by membrane separation and organic loading rate (OLR) increase, but reduced by excessive OLR, which should led the variations in the performances of AnDMBR. Furthermore, the necessity of liquid sludge fermentation for VFAs production was further confirmed by economic assessment and the bioavailability analysis of the residual solids in pretreated sludge. The residual solid was proved to be not conducive to enhance VFAs yield. Conversely, the energy consumption for VFAs production could be reduced from over 100 to below 20 kwh/kg VFAs by avoiding the “useless” residual solids entering into fermenters.

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Anaerobic digestion has been widely applied throughout the world for lignocellulosic biomass treatment and energy recovery. However, the solid digestate from anaerobic digestion still contains a rather large fraction of poorly anaerobic degradable lignocellulosic fibers due to inhibition of lignin, which deeply limits the bioenergy production from lignocelullosic biomass. Therefore, a novel fungal pretreatment method using P. sajor-caju and T. versicolor was investigated to advance the solid-state fermentation of solid digestate and improve the production of fermentative volatile fatty acids (VFAs). The results showed that a maximum VFA yield of 240 mg COD/g VS was obtained from solid digestate pretreated by P. sajor-caju in 6 weeks, which was 1.17-fold and 1.24-fold higher than that of the autoclaved group and raw substrate, respectively. The mechanisms indicated that these fungal strains could grow on the solid digestate and secrete ligninolytic enzymes such as laccase and manganese peroxidase to degrade lignin in different extents. Besides, fungal pretreatment substantially changed the solid digestate characteristics such as cellulose/lignin ratio and the presence of specific functional groups. Moreover, fungal pretreatment using P. sajor-caju effectively damaged the structure and increased surface area and pore size of the solid digestate, which is beneficial to further VFA production.

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Environmental impacts of biological wastewater treatment technologies (BWTTs) can be evaluated by life cycle assessment (LCA). However, very few efforts have been made to expand the ranges of results acceptance and promote stakeholders to participate in the results analysis. To facilitate the evaluation reaching more wide and deep understanding, this study proposed to employ multiple weighting methods and the Conjoint Analysis. To investigate the feasibility, an illustrative case of a bioaugmented constructed wetland was carried out. Weighting results indicated that appropriate improvement strategies could be obtained from synthesizing the similarities and differences of LCA results due to different weighting methods employed. Meanwhile, application of Conjoint Analysis was conducive to the communication between LCA practitioners and BWTTs stakeholders. In a simulated decision-situation, this study found that the decision-making process of stakeholders could be clearly derived to indicate how stakeholders would take trade-offs and make choices based on analyzing LCA outcome.

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This present study aims to analyze the differences in results of different site-directional life cycle assessment
(LCA) methods applied in the field of wastewater treatment. Site-generic methods were employed and
compared with China-specific methods on a full-scale wastewater treatment case. A set of Chinese
normalized factors were developed and employed to compare with world normalization factors. No
substantial discrepancies in results were obtained from the two different sets of normalization factors. In
the phase of life cycle impact assessment, the e-Balance showed substantial discrepancies in results,
compared with the CML method that is widely applied in LCA. The discrepancies were mainly attributed
to the cause that in e-Balance more emphasis is on regional water pollution potential (that is: chemical
oxygen demand (COD) as an independent impact category). Moreover, discrepancies in the results were
also investigated by applying different site-directional weighting methods. Besides the specific locations
where the weighting methods were designed for, this study showed that employing different
environmental indicators in impact categories was another important factor that resulted in differences
in the LCA results of the different weighting methods.@en

Bioaugmentation is a promising technology to enhance the removal of specific pollutants; however, environmental impacts of implementing bioaugmentation have not been considered in most studies. Appropriate methodology is required for the evaluation from both in-depth and comprehensive perspectives, which leads to this study initiating the application of life cycle assessment (LCA) of bioaugmentation. Two LCA methods (CML and e-Balance) were applied to a bioaugmentation case with the aim of illustrating how to evaluate the environmental impacts of bioaugmentation from different perspectives based on the selection of different LCA methods. The results of the case study demonstrated that the LCA methods with different methodology emphasis produced different outcomes, which could lead to differentiated optimization strategies depending on the associated perspectives. Furthermore, three important aspects are discussed, including coverage of impact categories, the selection of characterization modeling for specific pollutants, and the requirement of including economic indicators for future investigation.

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Methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) as a solvent is extensively used for the phenols extraction from the wastewater, so it is unavoidable to expose in the effluent due to the solubility and leakage problem. The present study evaluated the impact of MIBK on phenols degradation in an UASB reactor and analyzed its degradation properties. The results indicated that the continuous dosing (0.1 g L⁻¹) and impact (10 g L⁻¹) of MIBK had limited effect on phenols removal (1–2% reduction) in the UASB reactor, but the specific methanogenic activity (SMA) values of sludge decreased by 45–75% after MIBK exposure. Anaerobic degradation rate of MIBK fitted well to a pseudo-first-order kinetic equation with respect to the initial concentration of 35 mg L⁻¹ (k = 0.0115 h⁻¹, R² = 0.9664). Furthermore, the relative methane generation rate constants of MIBK were 0.00816, 0.00613, 0.00273, and 0.00207 d⁻¹ at the initial concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, 5, and 10 g L⁻¹, respectively. MIBK showed higher inhibitory effect on the methanogenesis than on phenols degradation. This study pointed out that the industrial installations should consider the influence of solvent on anaerobic treatment of phenolic wastewater.

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Three identical pilot-scale flat-sheet membrane-coupled aerobic digesters for simultaneous sludge thickening and reduction (MSTR) were performed in parallel under a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 14.6 h for 15 days. In the first 8 days, the stepwise destruction of waste activated sludge (WAS) flocs, i.e., dispersion from the outer to inner part, was observed likely due to the variation of dissolved oxygen concentration (Step 1: from 7.0 to 2.5 mg/L, Step 2: from 2.5 to 0.5 mg/L). During the process, the concentration of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) first decreased from about 170.0 to 140.8 mg/g volatile suspended solids (VSS), then from 140.8 to 67.7 mg/g VSS, resulting in the much higher concentration of soluble organic matters and small particles (1–20 lm) in Step 2. Meanwhile, the ratio of protein like substances to humic acids in the EPS first increased from 0.5 to 0.7, then decreased from 0.7 to 0.4. After 8 days, the regroupment of sludge fraction and successive increase in fine particle could also correspond to the slight change of EPS concentration. Moreover, the degree of humification of the supernatant could well correspond to the reduction degree of the sludge. @en

The results in this study show that struvite was formed in the digester at pH 7.7 due to the magnesium naturally present and the released ammonia and phosphate, resulting in low phosphate concentration in the digester. Apparently the digester already provided proper conditions for struvite formation. Under the brackish condition, the estimated thermodynamic solubility product and enthalpy change of struvite formation were 10 13.06 and 25.7 kJ mol 1, respectively. The average crystal size under marine/brackish condition decreased with pH, but increased with temperature. X-ray diffraction measurements indicate struvite (NH4MgPO4 6H2O) and dittmarite (NH4MgPO4 H2O) were predominant phosphorus species produced in filtrates of the digester. However, struvite and newberyite (HMgPO4 3H2O) were the predominant species precipitated from synthetic brackish waters after dosing MgCl2. It is pronounced that (waste)water characteristics played also an important role on the nature of phosphate precipitates. Under high NH4 + condition, phosphorus precipitates containing ammonia were dominant, compared to other amorphous phosphates. @en