The crest level of seawalls is often based on estimates of the amount of wave overtopping. Methods to estimate the mean overtopping discharge have been provided in several guidelines. One of the important parameters affecting wave overtopping is the wind. However, the effects of wind have not been accounted for in detail in present design guidelines although some guidance for coastal structures with crest elements is provided in literature. For onshore wind the expected wave overtopping discharge at coastal structures with a crest element can be up to a factor 5 larger than for situations without wind. In the present study the maximum influence of wind on wave overtopping at impermeable seawalls with crest elements has been studied based on physical model tests. The result of the study is a guideline to estimate the maximum influence of wind on wave overtopping at seawalls with crest elements.

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Physical model tests have been performed to study wave overtopping at rubble mound breakwaters, including breakwaters with a crest wall, breakwaters with a berm, and breakwaters with a crest wall and a berm. For rubble mound structures with a protruding crest wall or with a stable berm, limited information is available in literature even though protruding crest walls and berms clearly affect wave overtopping discharges. Adding a crest wall to an existing structure, increasing the height of a crest wall, adding a berm, or increasing the width or height of a berm, can be effective measures to account for effects of sea level rise if the sea level rise appears to be more severe than the amount of sea level rise for which the structure was designed for. The present wave flume tests were used to develop guidelines for rubble mound breakwaters, including breakwaters with a crest wall or with a berm. The relative height of the protruding part of a crest wall dominates the effect of a crest wall. The berm width, berm level and wave steepness all affect the influence of a berm on the wave overtopping discharge. Moreover, it was confirmed that the wave steepness also affects wave overtopping discharges for rubble mound breakwaters without a berm or without a crest wall. The developed set of expressions for rubble mound structures has also been validated based on existing data for oblique wave attack on rubble mound breakwaters with a crest wall.

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Worldwide, communities are facing increasing flood risk, due to more frequent and intense hazards and rising exposure through more people living along coastlines and in flood plains. Nature-based Solutions (NbS), such as mangroves, and riparian forests, offer huge potential for adaptation and risk reduction. The capacity of trees and forests to attenuate waves and mitigate storm damages receives massive attention, especially after extreme storm events. However, application of forests in flood mitigation strategies remains limited to date, due to lack of real-scale measurements on the performance under extreme conditions. Experiments executed in a large-scale flume with a willow forest to dissipate waves show that trees are hardly damaged and strongly reduce wave and run-up heights, even when maximum wave heights are up to 2.5 m. It was observed for the first time that the surface area of the tree canopy is most relevant for wave attenuation and that the very flexible leaves limitedly add to effectiveness. Overall, the study shows that forests can play a significant role in reducing wave heights and run-up under extreme conditions. Currently, this potential is hardly used but may offer future benefits in achieving more adaptive levee designs.

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Mass balance analysis of ice sheets is a key component to understand the effects of global warming. A significant component of ice sheet and shelf mass balance is iceberg calving, which can generate large tsunamis endangering human beings and coastal infrastructure. Such iceberg-tsunamis have reached amplitudes of 50 m and destroyed harbours. Calving icebergs interact with the surrounding water through different mechanisms and we investigate five; A: capsizing, B: gravity-dominated fall, C: buoyancy-dominated fall, D: gravity-dominated overturning and E: buoyancy-dominated overturning. Gravity-dominated icebergs essentially fall into the water body whereas buoyancy-dominated icebergs rise to the water surface. We find with unique large-scale laboratory experiments that iceberg-tsunami heights from gravity-dominated mechanisms (B and D) are roughly an order of magnitude larger than from A, C and E. A theoretical model for released iceberg energy supports this finding and the measured wave periods upscaled to Greenlandic outlet glaciers agree with field observations. Whilst existing empirical equations for landslide-tsunamis establish estimates of an upper envelope of the maximum iceberg-tsunami heights, they fail to capture the physics of most iceberg-tsunami mechanisms.@en

Moving water exerts drag forces on vegetation. The susceptibility of vegetation to bending and breakage determines its flow resistance, and chances of survival, under hydrodynamic loading. To evaluate the role of individual vegetation parameters in this water-vegetation interaction, we conducted drag force measurements under a wide range of wave loadings in a large wave flume. Artificial vegetation elements were used to manipulate stiffness, frontal area in still water and material volume as a proxy for biomass. The aim was to compare: (i) identical volume but different still frontal area, (ii) identical stiffness but different still frontal area, and (iii) identical still frontal area but different volume. Comparison of mimic arrangements showed that stiffness and the dynamic frontal area (i.e., frontal area resulting from bending which depends on stiffness and hydrodynamic forcing) determine drag forces. Only at low orbital-flow velocities did the still frontal area dominate the force-velocity relationship and it is hypothesised that no mimic bending took place under these conditions. Mimic arrangements with identical stiffness but different overall material volume and still frontal area showed that forces do not increase linearly with increasing material volume and it is proposed that short distances between mimics cause their interaction and result in additional drag forces. A model, based on effective leaf length and characteristic plant width developed for unidirectional flow, performed well for the force time series under both regular and irregular waves. However, its uncertainty increased with increasing interaction of neighbouring mimics.

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Coastal communities around the world face an increasing risk from flooding as a result of rising sea level, increasing storminess and land subsidence¹². Salt marshes can act as natural buffer zones, providing protection from waves during storms³⁷. However, the effectiveness of marshes in protecting the coastline during extreme events when water levels are at a maximum and waves are highest is poorly understood^8,9. Here we experimentally assess wave dissipation under storm surge conditions in a 300-metre-long wave flume tank that contains a transplanted section of natural salt marsh. We find that the presence of marsh vegetation causes considerable wave attenuation, even when water levels and waves are highest. From a comparison with experiments without vegetation, we estimate that up to 60% of observed wave reduction is attributed to vegetation. We also find that although waves progressively flatten and break vegetation stems and thereby reduce dissipation, the marsh substrate remained stable and resistant to surface erosion under all conditions. The effectiveness of storm wave dissipation and the resilience of tidal marshes even at extreme conditions suggest that salt marsh ecosystems can be a valuable component of coastal protection schemes.

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