In the 1960s a large natural gas field was discovered in the Dutch province of Groningen, in the northern part of the Netherlands. Due to gas extraction, localised earthquakes started occurring in the 1990s. In this part of the country large numbers of buildings are constructed using unreinforced masonry (URM). Damage due to seismic activity in the region poses a threat to the structural integrity of existing masonry structures, as these buildings were never designed to withstand seismic loading. Among others, an intervention method that was considered was retrofitting with bed joint reinforced repointing. This is an attractive solution, as it is already often used in strengthening of masonry structures against settlement-induced damage, especially for heritage structures, as it does not affect the aesthetics of the structure. Furthermore, since this reinforcing technique is already applied to limit damage due to ground settlements, it is an attractive potential solution to counter damage due to seismic loading, as it does not require additional funding. However, not much research is available on the performance of existing masonry structures retrofitted with bed joint reinforced repointing, considering both the effect of ground settlements and seismic loading conditions. To investigate the added benefit of bed joint reinforcement, used to counteract seismic-induced damage, nonlinear finite element analyses, of a case study of a typical masonry farmhouse in the Groningen region, were performed. The masonry farmhouse was modelled as a façade, meaning no out-of-plane failure could occur. In this research, an orthotropic continuum model called the engineering masonry model (EMM) was adopted. The used numerical modelling approach was first validated against in-plane experimental tests of unstrengthened and strengthened masonry walls, performed at TU Delft previously. For the façade, various cases were analysed: an unstrengthened façade, strengthened façades, using various peak ground velocities and a partially reinforced masonry façade. The results were analysed in terms of crack widths, crack patterns and damage values, which were developed previously by others. The numerical results showed that limited damage is caused by an earthquake with the expected seismic load (PGV of 64mm/s). It was found that retrofitting with bed joint reinforced repointing after the settlement had already occurred, did not greatly increase the structural performance of this type of farmhouse façade, as most of the damage was already formed at the end of the settlement loading phase. Since the damage due to seismic loading is so small, it was therefore not recommended to strengthen this type of façade with bed joint reinforcement purely against seismic-induced damage, as the added benefit is small. However, since this strengthening technique is often applied already for strengthening against only ground settlements, it could provide a minor benefit during seismic loading, as a side effect. Amplification of the seismic load by a factor 1.5 showed only a limited increase in damage in the strengthened façade, compared to the numerical model using the expected load, while the reinforcement was significantly more activated. However, damage quickly ramped up when the seismic load is amplified by a factor 2. In this numerical model failure of the masonry façade is even observed. The numerical results of the façade with partially reinforced masonry showed a significant reduction in damage, since the bed joint reinforcement now also resisted the action of settlement loading, which is one of the most sensitive parameters of the considered façade. Since this numerical model simulates the case in which the bed joint reinforcement is applied during the construction phase, it was concluded that use of bed joint reinforcement would be beneficial for future masonry constructions.

The Netherlands is facing a housing crisis, with a growing shortage due to urbanization and limited available land. An alternative for constructing new buildings is adding levels to existing buildings, but this poses challenges in ensuring structural stability, particularly as existing buildings were designed with older design codes, while new levels must comply with the latest Eurocode. However, an overview of the exact changes in wind loads and what kind of influence this has on adding new levels to an existing building is missing. Additionally, it is unknown what the exact gap is between the building or location specific wind load and the wind load according to the design codes. This research aims to clarify how changes in wind load design codes affect adding levels to existing buildings.
The study analyses the development of design codes from TGB 1955 to the Eurocode, focusing on wind loads. Wind pressure and pressure coefficients are examined through KNMI data and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. Findings suggest that while overall wind speeds align with design codes, certain coastal locations like Hoek van Holland and Vlissingen show deviations, indicating a need to revise the wind area map. Additionally, pressure coefficients are not constant over building surfaces. Especially the width seems to have an influence and this parameter not considered in the current Eurocode.
Adding levels to an existing building influences the wind load in a twofold manner: extra surface subjected to wind load and a difference in design codes for wind load between the now and past. The structure of the existing building must be used optimally to support the added levels. A case study on the SCYE010 building demonstrates that optimizing the top level's design and geometry can reduce wind pressure and loads, emphasizing the importance of code evolution in such projects. These findings offer critical insights for designing additional levels on existing structures.

This research investigates the effect of window position and size on building facades on daylight entry, energy consumption, and thermal comfort of buildings. The aim is to find a feasible way to make housing more sustainable and energy efficient in compliance with the Dutch Building Regulations while providing good daylit spaces. This knowledge can be helpful to architects and engineers at an early stage in the design process who intend to design a sustainable building. This research is done in relation to the graduation from the TU Delft Building Engineering Master's degree in cooperation with the company Sweco Nederland B.V. located in De Bilt.
This study developed a parametric model based on the NTA 8800 calculation method for energy demand and the NEN-EN 17037 daylight norm. Two different types of reference building are investigated, a middle apartment in an apartment building and a middle terraced house. The parameters used for this study are the orientation of the building, the height and width of the window (and therefore WWR), as well as vertical and horizontal positioning of the windows, and a balcony cantilever in front of the apartment windows. The results show that:
The lower WWR boundaries are independent of orientation, and therefore, the minimum WWR values per orientation are the same. The lower boundary of the apartment (33%) is strongly influenced by the present overhangs, while the terraced housing requires a minimum WWR of 12%. The results show that the maximum WWR for terraced housing is mostly restricted by the BENG1 requirement (25% -38%), except for the south orientation (36%) which is limited by TOjuli. The maximum WWR of the apartment is restricted mainly by TOjuli (33% - 60%). The BENG1 results show that a north-south orientation for terraced housing is best to minimise energy demand (WWRs of around 38% are possible until requirements are exceeded). For the geometries studied, this research suggests a WWR for an apartment building roughly between 30% and 45% and for terraced housing roughly between 13% and 25% as a starting point. On top of that, it is recommended to install windows in the middle of a facade in terms of horizontal position and in the upper part of the facade in terms of vertical position to maximise daylight entry. Glass below the reference surface height of 0.85m should be avoided.
The results of this research indicate certain guidelines, rules, and statements that can be used when working with the new regulations, of which the most fundamental statement: As a consequence of the updated daylight standard from NEN 2057 to NEN-EN 17037, an increase in WWR no longer directly leads to a higher daylight factor, as it did under the current regulation.
Furthermore, this study reveals clearly that despite the fact that energy demand and daylight are theoretically closely related, regulations are separated more. Daylight and energy demand are better separable (and individually optimised) in regulations than expected beforehand.
The methodology used demonstrates its robustness and practicality in analysing complex problems and obtaining validated results. Therefore, the methodology used can be recommended for further research and larger design projects in practice.

The Netherlands aims to have a fully circular economy by 2050. The construction sector in the Netherlands is only 8% circular (Circularity Gap Report Bouw, 2022). Reuse within construction projects presents various challenges, which will be discussed in this thesis. In the current market, there is more supply than demand (BAMB, 2020). One possibility to stimulate demand is the use of digital marketplaces. This study investigates how a digital marketplace can support the demand side in the design process, leading to the following research question:

How should a secondary ‘digital’ product marketplace function within the construction industry?

Before addressing this question, a literature review is conducted on various aspects. These include the concepts within digital marketplaces and platforms, as well as those within reuse projects, focusing on specific information about materials and products in the context of reuse. Additionally, the current state of the industry has been examined in terms of challenges, opportunities in general, and those related to digitalization. This is done to get a better understanding of the surroundings in which the marketplace must operate.

The literature research concludes that the core interaction is the most important form of activity on a platform – the value that attracts the most users to the platform in the first place (Parker et al., 2016). It consists of three parts: Participants + Value Unit + Filter. Fundamentally there are two participants on the platform, namely producers and consumers. In this case, producers are building/construction elements and their owners/sellers. Consumers are the ones that are willing to buy them (potentially; architects, engineers, contractors, or suppliers). Where the value unit starts with the exchange of information that has value to the participants. This information delivery to consumers depends on filters. A filter enables the transfer of appropriate value units between users. A well-designed filter ensures that platform users see only information units that are relevant and valuable to them. No filters or a poorly designed filter overwhelms users with units they find valueless and irrelevant, which causes them to abandon the platform. No research has been done to the specific design of the core interaction of a secondary product marketplace within the construction industry.

In addition, few scientific articles investigate software interfaces, ease of use and the user's role and experience within the construction industry. An action- and design-oriented research method is a new approach to this problem/goal. The information system framework is chosen to combine rigor research and the application domain within a design practices.

To structure this research the research question is divided into three steps (based on the core interaction). In step 1, the input for the design is investigated, which includes determining the participants who should use the marketplace (champions), how they should search for products, and what improvements can be made in the design process to promote reuse. In step 2, the filters and interfaces of the marketplace are designed. Within step 2, solutions for situations with limited data or, conversely, when there is sufficient data in the future are also explored. In step 3, the chosen champion validates if they can use the designed solution and whether it provides value.

To define the main users/champions (step 1), potential users-(roles) are interviewed about their needs for such a marketplace, assuming reuse becomes the norm. The literature review covers all aspects of digital (construction) applications and reuse in the construction industry. This is supplemented with expert interviews in IFC (an open data standard), user interface/user experience (UI/UX), current construction marketplaces, and material passports. In addition, various roles from several reuse projects are interviewed, including designers, project developers, purchasers, demolition specialists, and engineers, in line with the information system framework and action design. This is done to get an complete overview of all the stakeholders involved within the process of selecting/buying reused products.

The information of the literature research and the first interview phase is used in the design process to create ‘search and facet’ filters. Therefor a division based on the Brand/shearing layers (site, structure, services, skin/facade, space, and stuff) is made to improve the design the facet filters. The engineer and the architect is chosen as the primary user but in consultation with the design team. For all the engineers responsible or related to the a Brand layer a recommendation is made for a first set a (search) parameters.

Concerning the information need (step 2) of the structural engineer, the primary focus is on the elements' functional and physical properties (moment-of-inertia, material type, strength, and dimensions). Thereby the core interaction disregards environmental or economic properties. These are of secondary interest for the core interaction. The three main materials, wood, steel and concrete, require all different ways of working for reuse but share common properties which makes the design of filters less complex. Capacity, dimension, grid size, floor height and more properties could influence the structural design decision, increasing the demand for reusable structural products. However, more traditional engineers prefer to filter within one type of material. Even more in-depth material and product knowledge for reuse could is a next step for the core interaction, thereby evolving into a knowledge marketplace.

The other Brand layers (skin, services and space) information need should also focus on their functional and physical reusability properties, which are covered and designed in this thesis but not validated with real users. The skin and the space layer are more visually oriented; images support the architect's and engineer's decision-making. Aesthetic filters to filter on certain styles, colours, types and tags will support the architect where functional filters relating to dimension are of first need for the façade engineer. Secondly the physical filters benefit the search tremendously, such as; U-value, fire resistance, Rc-value, sound resistance, waterproofness etc. The service/building engineer wants to filter into three categories. Namely the machine, the distribution point (ventilation grille, water tap, heating element) and the transport (cable tray, pipe and wires). The machine (e.g., heating, cooling and air filters) has a more dynamical environment with a high change in regulation, expecting a low reuse pattern. The other two categories, distribution and transport are more suitable for reuse; these filters contain service type (energy, water, air, data and heating), minimum length and the capacity of distribution and transportation.

After step 2 (design) various structural engineers are interviewed using a working digital prototype to examine whether the search filters are effective for their reuse process (step 3). Besides various side notes on the design culture, system changes and the willingness of a client to reuse products. The interviewed users made recommendations which should be taken into account for a next design iteration. The proposed design is usable and could meet its goal/value proposition when reusing products becomes the norm.

This research is a small link in the bigger picture of a ‘circular’ construction industry. Still, many challenges remain that a digital marketplace could not solve. When interpreting the results, the following points should be considered as well. The interviewees in this research are involved or interested in reusing products. When less interested engineers/users must use this marketplace, other items could be of more importance or totally different obstacles could arise.

Further research should examine the other Brand layers and their primary users. Additionally, to succeed as a marketplace, choices need to be made. Which users and product categories will be supported in first place. What is the business plan and initial investment? Building and rolling out a marketplace requires entrepreneurial skills and courage. This research hopes to provide the readers with a holistic view of all the challenges related to a digital market platform that address the construction market for secondary materials. Together with a set of validated user interfaces of such marketplace.

The geographical features in the Southern part of Limburg forces precipitation from upstream located areas to flow through a bottleneck, which is exactly located at the city centre of Valkenburg. This makes increasing the safety level more complicated than in other areas. The safety level of Valkenburg has a lower standard in comparison to the rest of the country, namely 1 in 25 years. The combination of those two characteristics is not desirable. Official documents
state that this lower standard is based on detailed (societal) Cost-Benefit Analyses. In reality however, the safety standard is based on simple back of the envelope calculations. The Limburg Waterboard has indeed developed a Cost-Benefit tool which they could use to find out whether the implementation of safety measures are cost effective, however they have not been able to
implement it until now. Additional safety measures to increase the safety level are assumed too costly based on the same brief calculations. It is doubtful whether individual risk laws are met, since the Limburg Waterboard assumes no casualties in the Geul area. The 2021 flood however showed that this might be false for future floods which get more severe over time due to climate change.

The citizens and entrepreneurs in Valkenburg were not completely aware of the risks they were exposed to and their sense of safety related to flooding decreased after the flood. Most of the people questioned in a survey demanded a higher safety level than the current standard. They would even be open for an increase in tax to realise this improvement. Raising the quay walls would be a cost-effective solution according to some of the citizens. However, the entrepreneurs who rely on tourist based income, do not prefer this option due to loss in aesthetic value.

Hydraulic, structural, and non-technical solutions which are investigated in this report, have the aim to increase the safety level or make the safety level more acceptable for citizens. The hydraulic, and structural solutions focus on four main aspects. The first aspect is related to the redesign of bridges in the city centre. This is mainly done by applying a flat bridges design, which is further elaborated with a case study for the collapsed Emmalaan bridge, and a liftable bridge design. The second aspect is related to closing the gaps in the quay walls, and increasing the height of the quay walls. The third aspect is related to the implementation of water tunnel concepts with six different design concepts. The fourth aspect is related to implementing parts of Meerssen’s 4-step approach. The first three aspects of the hydraulic and structural solutions are focused on increasing the discharge capacity of the Geul, while the latter aspect focuses on retaining, delaying, and storing the precipitation. Non- technical solution are also proposed
that focus on making people more aware of the risk they are exposed to. This could eventually lead to more acceptance and thus more pleased citizens.

The first order estimations for investment costs and safety level for the hydraulic, and structural solutions are graphically displayed in order to provide an overview of possible interventions to the municipality of Valkenburg and the Limburg waterboard. Although preliminary, and based on limited available data, these results should encourage both stakeholders, and other relevant parties, to reconsider safety standards and search for measures that could increase the safety level of Valkenburg when desired.

Uit onderzoek naar de ingestorte parkeergarage bij Eindhoven Airport in 2017 blijkt dat het tot die tijd gebruikelijke detail voor voegen in breedplaatvloeren met krachtsafdracht in twee richtingen onder invloed van een positief buigend moment niet goed werd ontworpen en uitgevoerd. Een breedplaatvloer is in eerste instantie bedoeld om een krachtsafdracht in één richting te realiseren, maar de toepassing werd verruimd naar krachtsafdracht in twee richtingen. Daarnaast werd zelfverdichtend beton en gewichtsbesparende elementen geïntroduceerd bij de toepassing van breedplaatvloeren. Hierbij is niet zorgvuldig onderzocht of de bestaande regelgeving afdoende was voor deze toepassingen. De partijen in de bouw introduceerden hiermee onbewust een systeemfout: de constructie kon bros bezwijken doordat er een bezwijkvlak mogelijk was, zonder dat het door constructieve wapening werd doorsneden. Op dit moment bestaat er nog geen nieuwe regelgeving voor dit detail, maar worden er al wel vast aanwijzingen gegeven in de VARCE-rubriek in vakblad Cement.

Om inzicht te krijgen in hoe verschillende partijen in de bouw op dit moment omgaan met dit voegdetail bij nieuwbouw, is er in dit onderzoek aan de hand van een literatuurstudie en verkennende interviews een enquête opgesteld die verspreid is onder constructeurs en leveranciers. In dit rapport staan de resultaten van dit onderzoek.

Dit onderzoek is in opdracht van VNconstructeurs gedaan.

In recent years the AEC industry has started implementing more new technologies. Still, the adoption process is slow. One of the crucial steps during the building designing is a justification of design according to previously defined requirements. That process is still manual to a large extent, therefore unnecessarily time-consuming and prone to errors. The need for automation of requirements compliance checking has been rising in recent years, and the science community presented various approaches for automation. Still, most of the proposed methods has similar problems: using a black-box approach, require that the designer is highly skilled in programming, focusing on only geometric requirements and not covering whole process of compliance checking. Therefore, there is a need for a new approach that can solve all these problems. The rise in popularity of parametric design and tools like Grasshopper opens the possibility to overcome some of the current limitations. Also, the possibility of using requirements management software to have the process fully organized supports the belief in automating compliance checking. The fundamental objective of this project is to explore the possibilities of automating the requirements verification for a building design by using requirements management software to systematically structure the requirements and Grasshopper to generate the rules, which afterwards can be verified. To achieve this objective, the project was divided into three main parts. First, the conceptual framework for automated code checking is developed. Afterwards, the system architecture of the prototype tool was explored, and instructions for scripting the tool were given. Finally, after the tool was scripted, it was tested on a real building model.

From the literature review the two main types of requirements are found, the functional and performance requirement. Since the functional requirements are qualitative and cannot be quantified, that category is not suitable for checking with the approach proposed in this project. Therefore, the focus was on performance requirements. The central part of the project is the creation of a framework for automated compliance checking. The five steps are defined and these are:
1.) Requirements defining and logical structuring into RMS
2.) Interpretation of requirements
3.) Building model preparation
4.) Checking phase
5.) Reporting phase

After the theoretical basis is set, the modelling of the tool is elaborated. Firstly, the requirements for the tool are set. Afterwards, the system architecture is explored, and finally, instructions for scripting the tool are developed.

After the prototype tool is scripted, it is tested on a real building model, and it shows clear advantages compared to other approaches or manual work, still, it also has some disadvantages.
Test of the tool proved that the Visual programming language environment is a great platform for developing a white-box approach for automated compliance checking. Also, testing on the real-world building model shows that a five-step approach for automated testing of building design works and can be used. Lastly, the test shows that the proposed system architecture and instructions for scripting the tool can result in a well-operating tool.

Finally, recommendations for future research are given.

The aim of this thesis is to investigate and quantify the efficiency of high capacity self-stabilising modules in mid-rise residential buildings. These modules have a higher stabilising capacity than modules that are currently being used in the Netherlands and other countries and can therefore be used for more storeys without requiring an additional stabilising structure such as a concrete core.
In the first part, reference projects and case studies are looked at to get a good understanding of the current applications in The Netherlands and the United Kingdom. After analysing four case studies, an assessment is done on the functional efficiency, structural capacity and environmental impact of these modules. By doing so, the load-bearing structure of self-stabilising modules that can be used at a greater height can be identified. Design variants can now be drafted with different bracing configurations, which are later verified on strength and stability requirements. To effectively design a suitable braced frame, it has been researched what the displacement components for braced frames are. This has been done for simple frames without eccentricity as well as frames including eccentricity. Apart from single-cross frames with a relatively large span, double-cross frames are also looked into due to their increased stiffness.
As part of the total structure of the building, a design for the foundation as well as the inter-module joint, which is required to be demountable, has been made. These parts of the design are required to calculate the horizontal displacement during lateral loads.
A structural assessment is done on the stabilising capacity of each variant at 8 storeys. The design adjustments that are required to further increase the number of storeys up to 10 are looked into as to see whether or not an efficient structure can be maintained. It turns out that each design variant requires adjustments that reduces the efficiency. These changes are the result of a large increase of braced span, resulting in either inefficient use of beam profiles or a too large length when there is more than one braced span along the length.
Apart from a structural assessment, the functionality and environmental impact of the design variants has been analysed as part of the overall efficiency of the modules. The functional assessment includes several criteria such as wall-to-floor area and space efficiency factor. Using the required material use in partition structures and load bearing elements, the environmental impact is calculated, resulting in values for the embodied energy and embodied carbon per square meter in each design variant. Since the differences between the design variants are relatively small, they are also compared to four case studies that were done before.
On the basis of the results of this research, it can be concluded that self-stabilising modules can be constructed with different possible bracing layouts and an efficient load-bearing structure up to 8 storeys.

Each year, the province of Groningen experiences many induced earthquakes due gas extraction, which has been ongoing since 1963. The earthquakes cause damage to the buildings situated in the Groningen area, and they constitute a potential danger for the safety of the residents. These buildings are typically unreinforced masonry structures which are designed without knowledge of the presence of seismic activity in this area.

It is therefore essential develop and use assessment methods that are on one end reliable and accurate, but on the other hand allow to perform a large number of assessments of the vulnerability of the buildings in a short time. In other words, the assessment of all the buildings requires a quick and reliable assessment method. Such an assessment method should offer a strong understanding of the occurring failure mechanism during an earthquake, an acceptable prediction of the ground acceleration at which the collapse of the building may occur (maximum base shear force) and the displacement capacity of unreinforced masonry (URM) building.

The NPR9998 recommends four seismic assessment approaches, which differ in complexity and assessment time needed to be performed. The most comprehensive and time-consuming assessment method is the NLTHA (nonlinear time history analysis), which includes both the dynamic and nonlinear effects. In practice, this method is used only in special cases, such as in the case of monumental buildings. A simpler approach is the NLPO (nonlinear pushover) analysis, which is static and considers the nonlinear properties of the structure. An NLPO is less time consuming than an NLTHA, even when the finite element method (FEM) is considered.

A more simplified approach is the Simple Lateral Mechanism Analysis (SLaMA). This method is a simplified mechanism-based analytical approach. If the SLaMA method predicts realistically conservative global capacities, it could serve as an effective alternative assessment method for URM buildings, and especially to the NLPO FEM analysis. This study focusses on the comparison between the SLaMA method and the NLPO FEM analysis. Therefore, this study aims to answer the following research question:

Could the SLaMA method be a realistically conservative and effective alternative to the NLPO FEM analysis in making a seismic assessment for two-storey unreinforced masonry buildings?

In conclusion, the SLaMA method could be a realistically conservative and effective alternative to the NLPO FEM analysis in predicting the maximum base shear force. The displacement capacity predicted using the SLaMA method is validated only for buildings with RC floors. This predicted SLaMA method was realistically conservative compared with the ultimate displacement achieved using the NLPO FEM analysis. The SLaMA method is overall suitable for obtaining a quick understanding of the behaviour of an URM building. However, it requires a proper evaluation of the analyses to identify properly the type and the location of the failure mechanisms. For this reason, this method could be valuable to be applied before using a more complex assessment method.

The seismic assessment of unreinforced masonry structures in Groningen is still ongoing. The assessment is vital to determine whether a building must be strengthened or not. Different assessment approaches have been followed in recent years. First, the Non Linear Time-History analyses (NLTHA) were initially the only approach used for the seismic assessment. They are still overall the most accurate type of assessment, but they are also the most time-consuming one. Nowadays, NLPO analyses are more frequently used. This assessment procedure presents some limitations of application and may be less accurate for complex structures but it requires less computational time. The NLPO analyses can be performed by means of different tools, such as analyses based on the finite element method (FEM), equivalent frame (EF) or macro-element based analyses and, eventually, also analytical mechanism based analyses. The SLaMA method belongs to this last category: this method is an analytical approach already tested and validated in New Zealand for RC structures.
This research aims to answer the following research question:
• How is the in-plane behaviour of single-storey URM wall facades affected in simplified calculation methods compared to FEM when geometrical irregularities are present?
The walls have been modelled in 2D with three different methods: FEM, EF and SLaMA. Material properties and modelling assumptions were maintained as consistent as possible within the three different methods. For researching the influence of the geometrical irregularities on the accuracy of EF and SLaMA when compared to FEM, the variation of geometrical irregularities, each quantified by an index value, have been studied. The influence of these indices on the accuracy of the calculation methods has been researched with a sensitivity analysis.
The objective has been pursued by looking into single-floor URM façades, and the conclusions of this research can be applied to this typology of walls in Groningen made of solid clay brick masonry (pre 1945). The study focuses specifically on the base shear capacity of the walls.
The differences observed when comparing the in-plane behaviour of a wall analysed with 3MURI and DIANA are not significantly affected by the presence of geometrical irregularities. The ratio between the base shear capacity computed with the two approaches and the predicted failure mechanisms remains consistent for all geometrical irregularities defined in this report.
Similarly, the differences observed when comparing the in-plane behaviour of a wall analysed with SLaMA and DIANA are not largely affected by the presence of geometrical irregularities, since the base shear computed according to SLaMA is consistently lower than that obtained with DIANA. However, the base shear capacity obtained with SLaMA showed large variations between 0.34 and 0.75 with respect to DIANA when implementing geometrical irregularities. The largest variation is obtained when more than a single pier is considered, due to the inability of SLaMA to define the re-distribution of the vertical axial forces in the piers, nor correct boundary conditions at the top of the piers since the constraining action of the spandrel appear underestimate. This affected also the prediction of the failure modes, which differed for the two methods. However, in most of cases flexural failure mode was obtained, and the study should be extended to consider also geometries and loading conditions that cause also the shear failure of the walls.

The Netherlands has the vision to be completely circular by 2050 cutting its raw material consumption to half by 2030. To reduce the raw material consumption, materials in use must be reused and nothing should be wasted. However, the construction industry is far from reaching this goal. It is traditional in the EOL treatment of the building. The structure is crushed down into mixed debris and recycling is the highest level of waste management adopted in the sector. 85% of the CDW in The Netherlands is mineral waste which is crushed and typically applied as the foundation in road construction. Reuse, a higher level treatment method, is rarely adopted. Only 3%-4% of the total material demand in the industry is met with secondary materials. It is limited to the reuse of products such as doors, windows and interior installations.
Existing demolition methods do not allow for product recovery as it a costlier and time- consuming process. It requires skilled labour, knowledge and collaboration amongst the stakeholders to deconstruct for reuse. The limited knowledge of the know-how of recovering structural components is found to be prevalent. Furthermore, there is no tool or framework to quantitatively assess the economic feasibility of reusing components well before demolition.
The available methods for assessing reuse feasibility are found to have a futuristic approach and cannot assess the economic feasibility quantitatively. Therefore, the Feasibility Calculation Tool is developed in this research which is a practical framework capable of quantitatively assessing the reuse potential of the components. It provides clear guidance to stakeholders on how to assess if the components from existing buildings can be profitably extracted for reuse. The FCT can be successfully used to determine the economic costs and feasibility conditions quantitatively allowing for a circular EOL treatment. The reuse scenario and the tipping points for the structural floor elements can be evaluated well in advance of demolition guiding the decision of the owners to demolish or deconstruct for reuse. A well-planned deconstruction can further help find buyers in time and deconstruct with higher precision as per the requirements of the buyers increasing the salvage cost and the need to modify components after deconstruction.

The results of FCT show that it is most feasible and economic to reuse components directly on the same site (Reuse Scenario 1) then to transport them to another site for reuse(Reuse Senario 2). However, for the existing building stock, it is more probable to reuse under Reuse Scenario 3 than 2 and 1 as the
existing stock is not designed to be reused. Instead, a buyer should be found who has no or minimum modification requirements. Furthermore, taking the environmental impact of reusing secondary components into account improves the reuse feasibility. The reuse cases which are otherwise not economically feasible turn feasible once the environmental impact costs are considered, in other words, once the polluter is made to pay the price. Furthermore, planning for the EOL of the building should be done well in advance
to allow for sufficient time and efficient recovery. The owner should be motivated for deconstructing circularly, allow sufficient time and if he fails to reuse materials himself, he should allow for collection and sale of secondary products by the demolition companies to a third party. The demolition contractors, on the other hand, are found to depend on the question from the owner to reuse. However, they must make voluntary calls for deconstruction.

The goal of this thesis is to research multi-purpose, re-usable timber structures as a step towards sustainable construction. To reach it, the work was divided into four parts.
The project starts with an introduction explaining the motivations behind this work. It continues by grounding the problem in the context of major sports events. Indeed, the temporary quality of such manifestations, as well as their promotion of innovative solutions made it ideal for this study. Moreover, reviewing Olympic legacies showed the need for a structure capable to be re-used in different contexts.
The second part of the research englobes a literature review on two subjects. Exploring sustainable construction highlighted the main principles in environmentally friendly structural design. Life cycles assessments are identified as the main tool for evaluating the ecological performances and their process is therefore described. Moreover, reviewing existing LCA on timber constructions showed hotspots in the manufacturing of timber such as the importance of local sourcing.
Additionally, the second part examines existing work on designing for re-use. Multiple factors should be incorporated to ensure the re-usability of a construction. The most essential one, demountability was explored in length and a table showing the related design criterion, such as minimizing the number of different connectors, was devised. A review of existing constructions designed for re-use concludes this second part.
The third part applies the findings of the second to the selection of timber solutions. To narrow the possible products, the roof structure of an indoor arena is preselected for the case study. Locally sourced glue-laminated timber is chosen for its dimensional stability, whereas assemblies using glued-in rods and steel connectors show great versatility and are therefore preferred. Considering the structural system adapted for multi-purpose re-use, a truss was selected for the origin structure because of its inherent standardization. The third part is concluded by the development of a structural solution for the case study.
The fourth part concerns the design of the roof and façade structures of a badminton arena. To maximize re-use options, the structural elements are designed to be applicable to different contexts such as the main structure of a high school. The designed solution was finally assessed using the developed guidelines and an LCA-based study.
The study shows that multi-purpose re-use is a structurally feasible alternative. Indeed, through careful planning, and by using the developed guidelines, it is possible to re-use the structural elements from a 60-meter span roof in a 6.3-meter span high school with relatively high efficiency. Moreover, the environmental study, although superficial, showed a reduction in global warming potential of 60-90% depending on the re-use scenario compared with a one-off design.

Since the 60’s the Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij (NAM) has been extracting gas from the province of Groningen in the Netherlands. This resulted into seismic activity. However, the buildings in Groningen are not designed to withstand any seismic loading. The assessment of the seismic behavior of the building stock of Groningen is required to verify whether a structure causes any life safety risk during an earthquake. In this thesis two main objectives are studied. Firstly, it is studied whether the simplified analysis approaches: Simplified Lateral Mechanism Analysis (SLaMA), as described in the NPR9998-2018, and the Equivalent Frame Method (EFM) as implemented into the software package 3Muri are able to describe the seismic behavior of an Unreinforced Masonry (URM) terraced house. Secondly, the influence of the geometry of the piers in a facade is assessed. Both the objectives are studied by means of two case studies. The first case study represents a typical but idealized URM structure of a terraced house from which the seismic capacity was determined in the TU Delft lab by cyclic pushover tests. The second case study concerns a specific two-storey URM terraced house located in Groningen. The case studies are characterized by large daylight openings, slender piers and a low lateral capacity into the x-direction.

By increasing the life-span of building products, the Reuse strategy has potential to reduce CO2 emission in the construction industry but it is observed that not many building products are reused because it is not economical. The government aims to overcome this issue by encouraging the development of reuse markets but it is not yet clear for which building products it is possible for markets to arise; how to determine whether a self-sustaining B2B market for reusing specific products can arise with government support is the main question of the research. From Exploratory interviews, it was found that there are several types of obstacles that make reusing building products uneconomical. Literature was reviewed in search for the effects of these obstacles on the costs of reusing but it turns out that literature on this topic is lacking. Because there is already tacit knowledge available from demolition contractors who disassemble and sell second-hand products in the B2C market, it is decided to focus on supply of second-hand building products in the research. A Theoretical Framework is developed to provide the metrics for answering the main question with a supply-driven approach. It is proposed that there must be a hypothetical middleman who buys second-hand building products from demolition contractors to temporarily store them and upgrade them in order to be able to provide products that compete with new products. The framework also contains a model that demonstrates which price E1 demolition contractors must receive from middlemen to make reuse feasible for them and whether a transaction is profitable when the price E1 and the middleman’s costs E2 are subtracted from the price that builders are willing to pay for the product. Another model then evaluates whether there can be a market size for which the total profit made from all transactions is large enough for the middleman to facilitate market development. It does so by proposing how the price E1 and E2 develop when production scale increases. In a case study about reusing toilets, a method is demonstrated for determining the prices E1 and E2 at different production scales. This method is referred to as the Market Assessment Method. The price E1, that demolition contractors need to receive for disassembling a product is determined for different situations where the product occurs by means of a newly developed tool referred to as the Purchase Costs Tool. This tool is synthesized on the basis of stories from 15 demolition contractors, gathered in semi-structured interviews. The tool is validated by linguistic analysis and by testing it in practice. The tool is considered the main deliverable of the research. The case study shows that it can in fact be determined whether a market for toilets can arise by using the developed method and tool. Based on the discussion, it is concluded however that focussing on supply alone is not enough to conclude whether a market may really arise based on the method because it is not realistic that a middleman can actually supply an old product in the same way as a new product. It is proposed to do follow-up research to the additional costs that a builder needs to make for reusing second-hand products. Although the developed method does not cover the entire scope, it is concluded however that the method forms a valid basis.

Among the current targets of the building sector, one major goal is to maximize the resource efficiency (in terms of material use and in terms of energy used to produce the buildings); furthermore, the circular economy model aims for maximizing the reuse of the structural elements; thus, minimizing the material waste and avoiding a second production of elements. The high-rise building sector faces the challenge of considering a design that is flexible and adaptable to meet the functional requirements along its life span; and additionally, to consider a design for deconstruction, where the benefits and challenges that arise form reusing and recycling the material can be considered and addressed from early design stages.
This research addresses these trends and challenges by evaluating and comparing the environmental impact of different structural systems for a high-rise building in the Netherlands (151m). The comparison of four different structural systems with two core variations provides eight different stability systems. The scope of the stability systems considers foundations, core, columns, beams, bracings and floor slabs. The design of the structural systems was performed by the elaboration of 3D FEM models with parametrical tools to ensure the structural safety and serviceability of the building. Furthermore, the assessment of the environmental impact (global warming potential) was performed by means of a Life-Cycle Aseessment comparing three scenarios of the structure: cradle to gate, cradle to cradle, and cradle to cradle with 100% reuse of the structural elements; with data from the Nationale Milieu Database and with information from a technical report from the Joint Research Center.
The analysis of the results demonstrated that the environmental impact of the structural systems with steel core is 21% higher than the one that corresponds to the structures with concrete core, However, this variation is only 4% for the two variants of the diagrid structure. Furthermore, by including the average recycle and reuse rates form the market and current construction practices, the benefits at the end-of-life stage of the building can represent up to 17% of the impacts from the production phase. Moreover, when the reuse rate is considered as 100% the benefits increase up to 42% of the impacts from the production phase.
The results indicate that the improvement of the environmental impact of high-rise buildings can be achieved by means of sustainable structural design from the early phases of the design; where the choice of materials and of the structural system play and important role on the outcome of the total environmental impact of the building, which is becoming an important driver for the decision-making of new projects.

In the last decade, maintenance and adaptive reuse, of the existing building stock, have gained ground in the construction sector. For the adaptive reuse of a building, it is required to analyze, meticulously, the existing structure. Unreinforced masonry structures are indicative of the Dutch built environment. For the assessment of their structural capacity, the European Standard EN 1996 is, currently, applied. Masonry walls of high slenderness, often, comprise the structure of existing buildings, in the Netherlands. It has been noticed that the EN 1996 norm underestimates the vertical resistance of slender walls. This study attempts to extend the applicability of the EN 1996 norm to slender masonry walls, since the norm serves for the assessment of existing structures. Particularly, the research objective is to find an appropriate verification method for existing slender masonry walls, in one-way bending. Literature research is, initially, conducted, with respect to alternative formulas for the calculation of the vertical resistance of slender masonry walls. The formula in the EN 1996 norm and the alternative formulas are reviewed, considering a case study. The case study is one of the slenderest interior masonry walls, that form the structure of a relevant existing building block in Amsterdam. The latter was constructed in the late 19th – early 20th century. The engineering firm STRACKEE BV Bouwadviesbureau provided the technical drawings of the building block. Reference values for the vertical resistance, of existing slender masonry walls, are necessary to develop an appropriate formula for their verification. Therefore, the next step of the research is the numerical analysis. The response of slender masonry walls, subjected to combined vertical and lateral loading, is estimated according to the results of FE analysis. The case study is the reference for the geometry of the FE model. Indicative, for the construction period, properties of masonry are the input for the initial material model. Further, models of slender masonry walls with different geometrical and material properties are analyzed. Specifically, a parametric study is done, to define the influence of geometrical and material properties on the vertical resistance. Based on the FE analysis results, a new formula is proposed. The formula estimates the vertical resistance of existing slender masonry walls, subjected to combined vertical and lateral loading.

In Chile, the Biobío river separates the cities of Concepción and San Pedro de la Paz. Bridges crossing the Biobío river ensure a fast and dependable connection, which contributes to the transport options in the region. With the Biobío region being the second largest contributor to the country's GDP, an unreliable transport network is highly undesirable. However, this is exactly what happened since 2016. Some of the bridges crossing the river collapsed, excessive local pier scour near the foundation and negative effects of morphological dynamics were deemed to be one of the causes. Furthermore, Chile is prone to earthquakes and the resulting tsunamis, which can also damage the structural integrity of the bridge. The Chilean Railroad Agency (EFE) wants to realise a new railroad bridge crossing the Biobío river in Concepción, replacing the existing century old railway bridge. To prevent the failure of the new railway bridge, which can result in unnecessary economic damages, the morphological influence and damages due to scour, earthquakes and tsunamis, must be thoroughly understood and modelled. This process of modelling the current and future situations of the Biobío river is part of this project, using Delft3D-FLOW and NeoWave as modelling agents. With the outcomes the programme of requirements and the preliminary design for the bridge are updated and presented.

During the past decade, durability and sustainability has become more and more important in the building industry. By using no steel reinforcement, which has with high carbon emission and is sensitivity to corrosion, the structure should have a longer life span with less maintenance and a lower carbon footprint.
To get more information on unreinforced concrete structures, a literature study is done, focused on old Roman structures made out of Roman concrete. Besides historic concrete, research is also done on modern concrete and its capacity.
The new bridge is designed for the "Hoofdvaart", a canal in the polder called, "Haarlemmermeer". The design consists of three arches are connecting the two abutments and two piers. In the connection of two arches, above the piers, so called flood openings are placed. Romans used flood openings to let water pass, but in this case they are used for the reduction of weight. Wooden piles form the foundation to the stiffer sand layers. Calculation of the design is done in a few steps. Firstly, the original design, as explained above, is calculated. Results show stresses, that are more than 7 times higher than the capacity of the concrete. The biggest contribution to the stresses are coming from self-weight and load model 1. Load model 1 is a heavy vehicle placed at the most unfavourable position of the bridge. Lowering self-weight is an option, but load model 1 has fixed values, so they cannot be lowered. Next, six optimizations are designed and calculated to create a structure that should fulfil the requirements. It turns out that the structure still exceeding the capacity by approximately 28%. After these optimizations can be concluded that for the given location, this design is not totally satisfying. To find out what contribution soil has to the structure, a few extra calculations are done for the last optimization. Based on overall calculations, the conclusion is that the top soil layers of the "Haarlemmermeer" are not capable of generating enough horizontal support for the unreinforced bridge. To finalize the design, a cost analysis and Life Cycle Analysis, LCA, are made. In both analysis a comparison is made between the new design and a reinforced bridge over the "Hoofdvaart" in "Nieuw-Vennep". The cost analysis show a difference of approximately "170.000,- in advantage of the new design. Especially the material costs of steel and pre-cast elements in the existing bridge, contribute to this difference. So an unreinforced structure has less labour and less material costs, compared to a reinforced structure. Of course this difference is also depending on the type of structure and the design. The LCA shows around 30% less carbon emission for the new unreinforced bridge, compared to the existing reinforced bridge. Especially material use and demolition contribute to this decrease. This shows that an unreinforced structure is 30 to 40% more sustainable than a reinforced structure.

The Architecture, Engineering & Construction (AEC) industry has been traditionally fragmented, with a lot of disciplines specialising in different aspects of a project and encapsulating different knowledge areas. This research project, entitled “Knowledge Model for the Parametric Design of Concrete Viaducts”, investigates the development of a knowledge model around common, prefabricated concrete viaducts and its translation into an integrated, parametric platform and communication medium between architects and structural engineers. This model can act as a basis of discussion between the architect, the engineer, as well as the client and support a fast decision making process especially in the first steps of design. The main fields of interest for this project are Building Information Modelling (BIM) and parametric/associative design. BIM has revolutionised the industry by providing the practitioners with concepts and tools towards an integrated, object-oriented process. However, the current BIM technologies are often characterised by limited design flexibility. Parametric/associative design promotes the idea of designing structures, as systems of parameters which can generate numerous alternatives. This paradigm facilitates the development of complex geometries, enhances automation and supports optimisation algorithms. In this research, the advantages and limitations of the aforementioned fields, as well as a number of other concepts, such as Object-Oriented Programming, Extreme Programming and Model-Based Systems Engineering are investigated and the results are employed in the development of the model. The main parameters of viaduct design are determined and structured in a knowledge model considering their limitations and typical values. Moreover, the generic geometry of the components and their interaction is considered. This knowledge model starts with a strict top-down UML class diagram and gradually evolves into a parametric platform for viaduct design on Dynamo. Due to the complexity of the parametric script, a Python-based User Interface is created to increase the usability of the platform. The parametric model is seamlessly connected to Robot, a structural analysis software, through a Python script, in order to derive instant structural analysis results. The geometry of the deck is transferred to Robot, the structural analysis software, along with the properties of the beams, the support conditions and the loads of Load Model 1. A linear structural analysis is automatically conducted and the engineer can directly assess the results in Robot. The link between the applications ensures that both disciplines are working on the same design and merges their different knowledge areas into one model. The number of parameters considered in this research is 82, and they are divided in 3 categories according to the level to which the designer can influence them on the platform. As an outcome of the standardisation process and the restriction of the scope of the research, 51.2% of those parameters require input from the designer, while in the case of a symmetrical design (the same components are used on both sides of the viaduct) this percentage drops to 36.6%. This underlines the potential of such an integrated platform, since automation can significantly reduce the design time and both architects and engineers can focus more on the creative parts of the design and doing more design iterations. Important issues for the development of the platform are the validation of the results, in order to gain the trust of the user, as well as the limitations of the current parametric platforms. The Recommendations for further research include the immediate changes that can be implemented to the algorithm, such as the integration of cost analysis and the increase of the level of detail, as well as ways to unlock the full potential of this platform by considering cloud-based solutions and taking advantage of cutting edge technologies like machine learning.

The standard NEN 3215 contains a certain rain intensity for the rainwater drainage from roofs. By making use of the rainfall predictions for 2050, the consequences of this new intensity for the standard are analysed. Based on this analysis, a change of this rain intensity in NEN 3215 is recommended.