Wind machines are increasingly used to mitigate spring frost damage in agricultural sectors. Complementing quasi-3D temperature measurements to quantify the warming effects of wind machines (Dai et al., 2023), this study develops a numerical model to quantify warming effects on air and plant tissues and resolve the dynamic interplay between turbulent rotating plumes and canopy structure. We implement an integrated model in a large-eddy simulation and validate the model against field observations. Simulation results show remarkable agreement with the air mixing and warming effects observed during wind machine operation in Dai et al. (2023). Simulation results reveal significant air and leaf warming near the wind machine due to direct jet-mixing. Beyond 20 m from the machine (3–4 rotor diameters), while wind velocities drop rapidly, the warming is sustained and gradually decreases over distance. This sustained warming, without direct jet mixing, likely results from the advection of jet-entrained warm air. The warming extends 150 m upstream and 550 m downstream, influenced by the background wind. This difference is attributed to the interaction between the machine-induced jet and the background wind, forming convergence patterns when jets oppose the wind and extended warming plumes in wave-like patterns when jets align with the wind. Cross-stream warming symmetrically extends about 250 m. Within these warming regions, leaf temperatures closely follow air temperatures due to strong turbulent heat exchanges. Outside the warming zone, radiative cooling prevails, bringing the leaf–air temperature difference back to approximately 1 degree. These findings collectively give new insights into interactions between the induced warming plumes and air flows within the canopy and provide a useful tool to optimize operational wind machine deployment. This integrated model uniquely provides a full, multi-process representation of outdoor reality with respect to wind machine operation in orchards.

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Over the years, the Leipzig Wind Profile observed under near neutral condition has been considered as an essential benchmark for idealized friction layer models. However, the general weather condition for the Leipzig Wind Profile still remains a mystery after nearly 90 years. In order to simulate this event and try to recreate the weather conditions at that time, the WRF model driven by two types of reanalysis data setting up with two domains is launched. The model captures the wind physics well, except for a small deviation around 800 meters. Additionally, the simulated surface friction velocity and surface heat flux at Leipzig are close to the validation value. The simulated temperature slope at Lindenberg has some deviation compared to the documented value, which may be caused by the vertical coarse resolution and sensitive temperature fluctuations over the height. Moreover, there may have been rain or drizzle when the observation took place and this may have contributed to the near neutral condition feature. A finer resolution simulation could be run to investigate this further