Wind machines are increasingly used to mitigate spring frost damage in agricultural sectors. Complementing quasi-3D temperature measurements to quantify the warming effects of wind machines (Dai et al., 2023), this study develops a numerical model to quantify warming effects on air and plant tissues and resolve the dynamic interplay between turbulent rotating plumes and canopy structure. We implement an integrated model in a large-eddy simulation and validate the model against field observations. Simulation results show remarkable agreement with the air mixing and warming effects observed during wind machine operation in Dai et al. (2023). Simulation results reveal significant air and leaf warming near the wind machine due to direct jet-mixing. Beyond 20 m from the machine (3–4 rotor diameters), while wind velocities drop rapidly, the warming is sustained and gradually decreases over distance. This sustained warming, without direct jet mixing, likely results from the advection of jet-entrained warm air. The warming extends 150 m upstream and 550 m downstream, influenced by the background wind. This difference is attributed to the interaction between the machine-induced jet and the background wind, forming convergence patterns when jets oppose the wind and extended warming plumes in wave-like patterns when jets align with the wind. Cross-stream warming symmetrically extends about 250 m. Within these warming regions, leaf temperatures closely follow air temperatures due to strong turbulent heat exchanges. Outside the warming zone, radiative cooling prevails, bringing the leaf–air temperature difference back to approximately 1 degree. These findings collectively give new insights into interactions between the induced warming plumes and air flows within the canopy and provide a useful tool to optimize operational wind machine deployment. This integrated model uniquely provides a full, multi-process representation of outdoor reality with respect to wind machine operation in orchards.

@en

In current study, several fundamental and inherent problems in original Deardorff subgrid model are identified under stably stratified condition. It is found that the mixing length parameterization in this subgrid model is at the root of a long trouble problem of grid size sensitivity in large-eddy simulation (LES). A new formulation of mixing length is proposed under the consideration of some basic elements including the presence of surface, the dependence of grid size Δ and a smoothing interpolation. The performance of this modified scheme is remarkable regarding the improvement of the simulation quality and accuracy. In other words, not only is the convergence of the simulated results from a range of grid size achieved but also in the precise intensity of physical variables are modelled. The only discrepancies display in the variance of temperature in the middle of boundary layer and high turbulent kinetic energy near the surface.

To further experiment the performance of the new scheme under different scenarios, the cases of different stability condition, an independent LES code with same modification, the cases of different advection schemes and different prescribed parameters are explored. In very stable condition, the first order variables from the modified scheme are in reasonable range but with some spreads compared to the results from a dynamic code. The deviation of second order statistics shows that the proposed formulation of mixing length meets limitations due to the complex interaction between the surface and turbulent flow in shallower boundary layer. The modified scheme is model system independent based on the similar improvement of simulation results in an independent LES code system. The sensitivity of advection schemes is surprisingly hardly found in new proposed SGS model. The cases of tested parameters further verifies the limitation of original Deardroff subgrid model.

Over the years, the Leipzig Wind Profile observed under near neutral condition has been considered as an essential benchmark for idealized friction layer models. However, the general weather condition for the Leipzig Wind Profile still remains a mystery after nearly 90 years. In order to simulate this event and try to recreate the weather conditions at that time, the WRF model driven by two types of reanalysis data setting up with two domains is launched. The model captures the wind physics well, except for a small deviation around 800 meters. Additionally, the simulated surface friction velocity and surface heat flux at Leipzig are close to the validation value. The simulated temperature slope at Lindenberg has some deviation compared to the documented value, which may be caused by the vertical coarse resolution and sensitive temperature fluctuations over the height. Moreover, there may have been rain or drizzle when the observation took place and this may have contributed to the near neutral condition feature. A finer resolution simulation could be run to investigate this further