To date, there is no comprehensive approach available that can explicitly model the complete transient waveforms of acoustic emissions (AE) induced by fracture processes in brittle and quasi-brittle materials like concrete. The complexity of AE modelling arises from the intricate coupling between the local discontinuity of material fracturing and the global continuity of elastic wave propagation in solids. Among others, the lattice type models are promising approaches, as they are known to be a matured modelling approach to simulate the fracturing process in concrete-like materials. Nevertheless, like other discrete element methods (DEM), they are currently limited to describing the number and rate of AE events (broken elements) in the fracture process and cannot explicitly model wave generation and propagation. In this study, we propose a lattice modeling framework to simulate the propagation of complete waveforms of fracture-induced AE signals in concrete. A proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control algorithm is incorporated in an explicit time integration procedure to reduce dynamic noise from spurious oscillations. Additionally, a Rayleigh damping-based calculation method and corresponding calibration procedure are proposed to model the attenuation of AE signals due to material damping. Using the developed approach, we systematically investigate the feasibility of lattice models for elastic wave propagation simulation, the dependence of lattice mesh sizes and the choice of numerical damping parameters. These results lead to a systematic framework which can be employed in simulating wave propagation with attenuation using DEM models in general including lattice models.

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This paper proposes a new mechanical model to describe the dowel action with the aim of using the model to gain a deeper understanding of the unstable dowel splitting cracking observed in shear experiments of beams without shear reinforcement. The model was developed by combining beam on elastic foundation (BEF) theory and fracture mechanics. The proposed model is able to predict the whole evolution process of dowel action until the propagation of the dowel splitting crack becomes unstable. The model theoretically proves that the development of a dowel splitting crack can become unstable under certain conditions, therefore leading to the unstable shear failure of the whole member. In addition to the derivation of the analytical model, the paper also validates the model using data from the literature. Finally, an analytical solution of the critical shear displacement that triggers the unstable dowel splitting crack is derived. It can be used to improve the failure criterion initially proposed in the Critical Shear Displacement Theory (CSDT).

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Aging infrastructure globally faces degradation, posing risks and requiring substantial repair investment. Strategic maintenance practices are crucial for evaluating structural conditions and ensuring sustainability. The growing demands on modern materials and structures necessitate enhanced health monitoring approaches. Shifting from reactive to proactive maintenance methodologies is paramount, due to lower investment while keeping the structural performance at acceptable standards. However, quantitative assurance of repair/reinforcement/retrofit programs or self-healing effect in structures is similarly crucial for the operation of the infrastructure. Non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques, such as ultrasound, acoustic emission, and optical methods, play a vital role in assessing structural health. Through real-world case studies, the effectiveness of repair in addition to damage assessment are evaluated, encouraging a more systematic approach to monitoring structural repair efficacy. The paper intends to address the research gap in monitoring the repair effectiveness in civil structures and materials and provides valuable insights to enhance repair strategies in civil engineering.

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As the existing bridge stock is aging, assessment of existing bridges becomes increasingly important. In the Netherlands, the shear capacity of reinforced concrete slab bridges is found to be insufficient. In particular, the shear and punching shear capacity of reinforced concrete slab bridges subjected to concentrated loads from the design tandem or truck is subject to discussion, as the shear behavior is situated in between oneway and two-way shear. Currently, an experimental program is being conducted at Delft University of Technology to determine the shear capacity of straight and skewed reinforced concrete slabs under point loads near to the support. This paper presents the results of the 25 tests conducted on six straight slabs of 5m × 2.5 m × 0.3 m subjected to a proof load testing loading protocol. The failure load and modes of the slabs are described in detail. Reinforced concrete slabs under concentrated loads can fail in shear, punching, and flexure, as well as a combination of these failure modes. The results of the experiments are compared to strength predictions obtained by using current design models and current methods for assessment. These experiments demonstrated that the Dutch guidelines, which are based on previous slab experiments, are an improvement as compared to the Eurocode for the assessment of existing reinforced concrete slab bridges. Ultimately, this work provides recommendations for bridge engineers tasked to assess reinforced concrete skewed slab bridges.

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As the existing bridge stock is ageing in various parts of the world, the topic of how to assess, maintain and/or improve, and manage existing bridges becomes increasingly important. Existing bridges may be designed according to outdated codes with requirements that may be considered unsafe nowadays, and for loads that are significantly different than those used nowadays. For those bridges, an accurate assessment leads to more efficient management of the bridge stock. This paper outlines various strategies that lead to an improvement of the assessment, and potentially to the extension of the service life of existing concrete bridges. This paper provides a selected examples that engineers who are faced with the assessment of ageing bridge can use. Ultimately, the presented insights can serve to support countries with a younger bridge stock in the development of an assessment strategy.@en

Proof load testing for assessment can involve a large risk due to the high loads. Stop criteria can reduce this risk. Stop criteria are necessary for shear, which is a brittle failure mode. This paper describes the development of shear stop criteria for slab strips. The shear stop criteria are developed by combining theoretical concepts related to cracking, as well the relationship between bending- and shear-critical regions, along with insights from the Critical Shear Crack Theory and the Critical Shear Displacement Theory. The shear stop criteria are validated with fourteen beam tests. The result is a set of shear stop criteria in a “traffic light system” with a green light level related to serviceability, and yellow and red light related to the ultimate limit state for shear. These stop criteria serve as the basis for a global approach for proof load testing of reinforced concrete bridges.

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In old Dutch inner cities like Amsterdam a large number of steel-concrete bridge decks built between 1880 and 1960 remain in service nowadays and currently need assessment of their bearing capacity. A significant number of these decks were designed without any mechanical connectors like shear studs in the interface between concrete and steel. Moreover, the concrete decks were designed with only shrinkage reinforcement in both directions on the top layer of concrete. No additional transverse reinforcement was placed that can ensure proper (re)distribution of loads after cracking. In order to study the bearing capacity of this deck typology, two specimens of an existing bridge were taken to the Stevin Lab of TU Delft and tested until failure. In this work, the experimental results of both tests are presented. Then, finite element models including nonlinear behaviour of the materials and the interface are presented and compared with the experimental observations. Experimental results show that the bearing capacity is achieved after yielding of the steel beams. Nevertheless, the ductility and transverse load distribution of the elements is affected by the interface behaviour and the poor detailing. The finite element simulation strategy used shows good agreement with the experiment and can be used for future assessments.
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Coda wave interferometry (CWI) holds promise as a technique for concrete stress monitoring. This is because the coda, which consists of multiply scattered arrivals, is the result of propagation through the medium over large distances. As such, it is sensitive to both minute structural changes and small velocity changes in that medium. Previous studies focusing on concrete have predominantly utilized the time-domain-based stretching technique to measure travel-time changes. There is, however, a lack of consensus on how to quantify these changes effectively. In this study, we conduct a systematic comparison between two techniques, namely the stretching technique and the wavelet cross-spectrum (WCS) technique, for measuring stress-induced velocity changes in a cylindrical concrete sample. Our comparison focuses on two key aspects: (i) stability against cycle skipping and (ii) consistency in retrieving velocity changes. Experimental results reveal that both the WCS technique and the stretching technique yield consistent velocity changes. In terms of stability, it is challenging to determine which technique performs better, due to differences in the mechanisms triggering cycle skipping. However, when considering waves with frequencies ranging from 50 kHz to 80 kHz, both techniques exhibit comparable performance. Based on our findings, we offer the following recommendations for utilizing these CWI techniques in concrete stress monitoring: For the stretching technique, selecting the time window length based on the wave frequency and the expected magnitude of velocity change. For the WCS technique, operating it in the frequency band where spectral decomposition shows sufficiently high energy in the signal and can accommodate the expected magnitude of velocity change.

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In this work, dynamic characterization of a simply supported beam is carried out during different steps in a failure load test. The main goal of this work is to evaluate the evolution of the structural dynamic parameters of the beam with different status of damage. Real-scale prestressed concrete beams are tested to investigate its shear behaviour as a part of a large research program at TU Delft. Four dynamic tests are performed at different damage status of the beam: firstly in the initial or undamaged condition; secondly after the first flexural cracks; then, after shear cracking; and finally in the full damaged condition. The dynamic excitation is performed with an impact load at fixed location on the top of the beam and the vibration data is recorded by three different systems. The first one is a cost-effective and open source monitoring equipment, consisting of seven low-cost accelerometers. The second system is based on five trusted high performance accelerometers. The last one is a commercial alternative consisting of four high accuracy piezoelectric accelerometers. Acceleration data is analysed afterwards using Operational Modal Analysis techniques to obtain modal frequencies, modal shapes and damping of the structure in the different states. The obtained dynamic behaviour of the structure and its results are discussed and compared. It is concluded that a change in the frequency of the first flexural mode is only observed when the damage in the beam is very significant, while no changes are observed with the occurrence of flexural and shear cracks.@en

To assess the structural capacity of reinforced concrete structures, identifying the internal cracks is important. Acoustic emission (AE) is promising to estimate the location of internal cracks. However, the localization is influenced by many factors like arrival time picking error, presence of crack, etc., resulting in localization error. The error cannot be entirely removed. Considering the inevitable localization error, a probabilistic method was recently developed by the authors. The method estimates the probability of the location of AE events, creating a probability density field of AE events (pdAE field). This method can possibly improve the identification of internal damages. This paper evaluates the performance the pdAE field in identifying internal damages in a reinforced concrete slab. The slab was loaded to failure by a point load. Compared to the conventional localization results, the pdAE field showed a clearer internal crack pattern. Moreover, calculation of the pdAE field was time efficient, thus was suitable for real-time monitoring. With these benefits, the pdAE field indicated the failure of the slab before it occurred. @en

Monitoring or identifying structural cracks is crucial for assessing the health of existing concrete structures. Key information about structural cracking encompasses the location of the crack and its kinematics, which include movements perpendicular and parallel to the crack face. Acoustic emission (AE) is a sensitive technique for detecting the location of internal concrete cracking. However, the state-of-the-art AE monitoring methods offer limited information on crack kinematics, restricting the use of AE in crack assessment. To bridge this gap, this paper uses a recently proposed AE data analysis method that quantifies the spatial distribution of AE events along a crack probabilistically. This method uses a parameter referred to as the probability density of AE events (pdAE). By combining pdAE and crack kinematics measured by digital image correlation in a series of real-scale concrete beam tests, this paper investigates the relationship between AE events and crack kinematics. The analysed cracks are generated by a combination of bending moment and shear forces, as commonly observed in real structural concrete members. We find that the amount of AE events is not only related to crack width (the crack movement perpendicular to the crack face), as most literature suggests, but also to the complete crack kinematics throughout the loading history of the member. We then provide a physical explanation for the observed relationships between concrete crack kinematics and the quantity of AE events.

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Geopolymer concrete is a new alternative material to conventional concrete with less carbon dioxide emissions. Researchers have reported much research on the material properties of geopolymer concrete. However, research on the behaviour of this newmaterial at the structural level is still limited, especially at a full-scale structural level. Three geopolymer concrete beams with a total height of 700mm were tested till the shear failure. The first two specimens were subjected to the monotonically increasing load until the shear failure. The third specimen was first loaded under sustained load at the level of 80 kN for three weeks to investigate the influence of shrinkage and creep on the cracking behaviour. Then the specimen was then unloaded and reloaded again to failure. Digital Image Correlation (DIC) measurement was used to measure the surface deformation of the whole span of the beam. The crack spacing, crack width and crack development were investigated using the DIC measurement. The experimental results showed that the shear capacity of tested geopolymer concrete beams is lower than the calculated result based on the Eurocode.@en

Typically precast girders are designed and utilized as simple supported members. Alternatively, the precast girders can be made continuous at the intermediate support using cast-in-place concrete topping. Once the girders are made continuous, time-dependent restraint moments will occur. The magnitude of the restraint moment is mainly affected by the creep and shrinkage behaviour of the concrete and the age of the girders at continuity. The developing restraint moment may affect the stress conditions near the support region and, in extreme cases, result in the loss of the integrity of the structural member. Currently, full-scale experimental campaign is underway on the shear behaviour precast continuous girders at Delft University of Technology. Inverted T girders are individually cast and later made continuous after a certain period. To investigate the influence of restrained action and quantify the prestress losses, fiber optic sensors (FOS) are embedded in the girders. By utilizing the FOS, the evolution of the concrete strain is monitored. This paper presents the measurement of the time-dependent strains. Furthermore, the concrete strains are analysed to evaluate the prestress loss and time-dependent restraint moment effect.@en

Load testing and in some cases failure (or collapse) testing of bridges is a method to learn more about the behaviour of full-scale bridges in site conditions. Since such experiments, especially failure tests, are expensive, an extensive preparation of these tests is important. This paper addresses the question of when a bridge is a good candidate for a load test or a failure test. To answer this question, a multi-level assessment methodology is developed. The proposed method includes a decision tree that helps users decide which method should be used to reach the desired level of accuracy. These procedures are followed to carry out an assessment based on the load and resistance models and factors from the code, as well as to estimate the maximum required load in a collapse test based on average values and a single tandem. The procedures are illustrated with the case of the Nieuwklap Bridge in the province Groningen, the Netherlands. The multi-level analysis showed that testing the Nieuwklap bridge would most likely not result in a shear failure, and thus the test would not meet the goals of a collapse test in shear, which would provide valuable research insights. On a more abstract level, the result of this research is the development of a multi-level decision-making procedure that can be used to evaluate if a field test should be planned and can meet the identified goals.@en

When the shear resistance of prestressed beams with stirrups is determined with the current Eurocode, no distinction is made between regions with and without flexural cracks. This while it may be expected that a region without flexural cracks will have a higher shear resistance. This is due to the lower longitudinal strains and the narrow crack widths, resulting in a higher contribution of aggregate interlock. Also, the Eurocode does not take into account that in regions without flexural cracks, a significant part of the shear force is transferred through the uncracked flanges. This article proposes therefore a shear resistance model, based on Modified Compression Field Theory (MCFT), that does consider the low longitudinal strains and shear transfer through the uncracked flanges. From a comparison it was found that the proposed model can determine shear resistance as accurately as the most comprehensive level III approach of the Model Code 2010. However, the proposed model was found to be much easier to use in engineering practice as no iterations are necessary.

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Nineteen 2D nonlinear finite element analysis (NLFEA) solution strategies were benchmarked against a wide variety of 101 experiments on reinforced concrete beams failing in bending, flexural shear, or shear compression. The relatively high number of solution strategies was motivated by the conviction that choices for the constitutive models, the finite element kinematics and equilibrium settings will interact, and must therefore be tested in conjunction. Modeling uncertainty distribution parameters are presented for the 19 solution strategies, using all beams, and using beams with and without stirrups separately. The resulting statistics are discussed against the correctness of the simulated failure modes and failure loads, revealing that rotating crack models perform well for the relatively ductile failures in beams with stirrups, while fixed crack models perform better for the more brittle failures in beams without stirrups. The tailored solution strategies that predict failure modes correctly, imply a log-normal distribution of the modeling uncertainty with relatively low coefficients of variation. The outlook is that these estimates of the statistical properties of the modeling uncertainties could serve as a basis within safety formats.

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Prestressed hollow-core slabs (PHCS) are generally fabricated through an automated extrusion method by using an extremely dry concrete mixture to maximize productivity in precast factories. In consequence, it is very challenging not only to provide shear connectors along the interface between the PHCS unit and cast-in-place (CIP) topping concrete but also to secure code-compliant intentional roughness due to its extremely hard and flat surface condition. Thus, it is difficult to have sufficient horizontal shear strength required to achieve flexural performances of the prestressed composite members. To this end, extensive pushoff tests were conducted in this study considering various interface roughness conditions, from which some viable options were chosen. Then, flexural tests on full-scale composite PHCS specimens were performed with selected surface conditions from the pushoff tests. On this basis, the applicability of various surface roughness conditions that are inevitably faced in practices is examined based on ACI 318 design criteria and nonlinear analysis. It was confirmed that sufficient horizontal shear strength can be achieved not only by properly roughened surface conditions but also by placing wire meshes between PHCS units even with no intentional roughness.

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Om de vele bestaande betonnen bruggen – die de komende tijd het einde van hun beoogde levensduur bereiken – te beoordelen, is het belangrijk een aanpak met verschillende niveaus van beoordelen te gebruiken. Waar een handberekening niet volstaat, kunnen geavanceerde modellen, meetgegevens, belastingproeven, monitoren, inzichten van laboratoriumproeven, of een combinatie van deze technieken worden gebruikt. De keuze hiervoor hangt af van de openstaande vragen met betrekking tot het gedrag en/of de capaciteit van de brug, alsook van de kosten-batenanalyse van de beoordelingsmethode. @en

Nowadays, with the aging of the bridges and the advancements in technology, load testing has emerged as an effective method to assess existing concrete bridges with missing information, or where analytical methods do not provide an accurate assessment. Two types of load tests are identified: diagnostic load tests and proof load tests. Both rely on field measurements of parameters or structural responses of the bridge during the test. A diagnostic load test measures the response of the bridge so that analytical models can be calibrated and evaluated. In a proof load test, the bridge directly demonstrates that it can carry a certain load. Since large loads are applied, the bridge needs to be carefully monitored. In this case, monitoring the measurements provide a warning to avoid damage. This paper reviews the literature on reported load tests and the measurement techniques used during these tests. It also includes a review of traditional and recently developed sensing technologies. Finally, the measurement requirements for diagnostic and proof load tests are given as well as a flow chart to guide engineers in the selection process of appropriate monitoring and measurement techniques during load tests. This paper can serve engineers during the preparation of a load test.

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There are a large number of precast girder bridges in the Netherlands that are made continuous utilizing cast in situ layers and cross beams. When controlled by the Eurocode minimum shear reinforcement requirement, the majority of these bridges that were constructed before the 1970s have insufficient amount of transverse reinforcement, which could make them shear critical. Furthermore, when the continuity is created at intermediate support, the prestressing strands in the precast beams are usually located in the compression zone. This may limit the positive effect of the prestress to the shear capacity of members without transverse reinforcement. The aforementioned concern is not considered by the standard shear design approach of Eurocode. Because of its empirical nature, the shear capacity of these bridges cannot be rationally assessed by the code. Currently, an experimental campaign on full-scale 15m long specimens is underway at Delft University of Technology to investigate the existing challenges. In this paper, the effect of the above-mentioned concerns is illustrated using the predictions of Eurocode and the Dutch Guidelines for the Assessment of Existing Bridges (RBK). Moreover, the difficulties and insights gained from the design and execution of the experiments are discussed.@en