A major challenge of infrastructure management is to predict the remaining capacity of degrading structures and safely prolong their lifetime. In reinforced concrete (RC) structures, concrete cracking has a significant effect on durability and stiffness properties. Structural integrity degradation is often assessed by estimating the global stiffness loss through vibration-based structural health monitoring. Yet, this is challenging as the modal characteristics might also be affected by environmental and support conditions. At the same time, the development of models that enable studying the modal characteristics of cracked concrete structures has received little attention so far. This paper proposes a novel, visual inspection-based method to predict the decrease in effective elastic moduli of existing concrete structures from observed longitudinal and transverse cracks which are typical for corrosion and load-induced damage in RC elements. Discrete and smeared finite element models are developed to establish a relation between the geometrical crack properties and the changes in the concrete's smeared dynamic stiffness parameters, as defined within an orthotropic material model. It is found that the crack pattern has a significant influence, with transverse cracks generally reducing the stiffness parameters more than longitudinal cracks. Experimental data support the proposed relations’ ability to tune the parameters of the orthotropic material model based on crack properties from corroded or mechanically loaded RC beams. The proposed relations enhance the assessment of serviceability limit states in RC beams and offer a valuable tool to evaluate dynamic test data obtained from on-site monitoring.

Assessment of existing reinforced concrete (RC) structures after an earthquake is a challenging task that must somehow relate qualitative and quantitative observations in the plastic hinge regions and the associated residual deformation capacity of damaged structures. Having an estimate available for the remaining drift capacity will result in more economical and informed decisions regarding demolition or strengthening options. This study aims to develop a practical methodology to estimate the maximum drift demand of an RC column based on the residual crack width. For this purpose, fiber-based frame elements are used to model the RC column considering appropriately concrete behavior in compression and tension stiffening effects. Afterwards, the accuracy and reliability of the proposed methodology are demonstrated by validating the computational approach with two cyclic experimental results from literature and new test data for a one-bay one-story RC frame conducted within the course of this study. A comprehensive parametric study is performed for RC columns with different axial loads, longitudinal and transverse reinforcement ratios, and ground motions to exhibit the stochastic behavior. The study identifies the axial load ratio as the predominant parameter. Key findings include strong correlations between maximum drift ratios and total residual crack widths, as well as maximum compressive strains, with regression analysis yielding equations for accurate drift ratio estimation. Simple predictive models are proposed to estimate the maximum deformation demands based on observed residual crack widths. Residual cracking exceeding 5 mm poses significant risk for the columns with axial load ratios above 0.4, with 90% probability of exceedance 2% drift ratio.

This paper proposes a new mechanical model to describe the dowel action with the aim of using the model to gain a deeper understanding of the unstable dowel splitting cracking observed in shear experiments of beams without shear reinforcement. The model was developed by combining beam on elastic foundation (BEF) theory and fracture mechanics. The proposed model is able to predict the whole evolution process of dowel action until the propagation of the dowel splitting crack becomes unstable. The model theoretically proves that the development of a dowel splitting crack can become unstable under certain conditions, therefore leading to the unstable shear failure of the whole member. In addition to the derivation of the analytical model, the paper also validates the model using data from the literature. Finally, an analytical solution of the critical shear displacement that triggers the unstable dowel splitting crack is derived. It can be used to improve the failure criterion initially proposed in the Critical Shear Displacement Theory (CSDT).

The cracking of the pre-/post-casting UHPC joint in the steel-UHPC composite bridge deck system can lead to continuous tensile damage in the UHPC layer, reducing its ability to stiffen the steel deck. This study aims to clarify the cracking mechanism of the segmented-casting UHPC joint, and to provide design recommendations for cracking control. Axial tension tests on full-scale composite deck specimens were conducted, in which the influence of with and without joint, and varying reinforcement ratios on cracking response were identified. Moreover, the nonlinear numerical model for the composite deck, where the UHPC-UHPC interface was simulated in three methods, i.e. unbonded case, cohesive zone model (CZM), and perfectly bonded case, was developed and validated to simulate the crack initiation and propagation of the UHPC layer. Based on the validated numerical model incorporating CZM, improving the bond strength of CZM is more effective in controlling crack opening at the interface than increasing the failure displacement. Finally, optimized reinforcement arrangement and joint shape recommendations were provided to enhance construction convenience, minimize stress concentration, and limit crack opening.

When employing the strut-and-tie modelling (STM) method in the conceptual design of reinforced concrete structures, a suitable strut-and-tie (ST) model indicating load transfer mechanisms first needs to be identified. Topology optimization (TO) methods have frequently been used for this purpose. However, although TO methods employing either a ground-structure or a continuum-based TO approach can be used, the performance and effectiveness of these two methods have not been systematically investigated and compared. To obtain a better understanding of the characteristics of both methods, a systematic comparison procedure is proposed to investigate the generation process and the resulting ST designs. Three aspects, relating to structural performance, economic issues, and method applicability are considered in the comparison, with six metrics formulated to quantify these aspects. Based on investigation of designs for three reinforced concrete elements incorporating typical discontinuity regions (two 2D cases and a 3D case), the performance of the two methods is assessed. It is found that both methods result in safe and efficient ST designs, with comparable structural performance, while some differences in terms of computation time and usability are observed.

To date, there is no comprehensive approach available that can explicitly model the complete transient waveforms of acoustic emissions (AE) induced by fracture processes in brittle and quasi-brittle materials like concrete. The complexity of AE modelling arises from the intricate coupling between the local discontinuity of material fracturing and the global continuity of elastic wave propagation in solids. Among others, the lattice type models are promising approaches, as they are known to be a matured modelling approach to simulate the fracturing process in concrete-like materials. Nevertheless, like other discrete element methods (DEM), they are currently limited to describing the number and rate of AE events (broken elements) in the fracture process and cannot explicitly model wave generation and propagation. In this study, we propose a lattice modeling framework to simulate the propagation of complete waveforms of fracture-induced AE signals in concrete. A proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control algorithm is incorporated in an explicit time integration procedure to reduce dynamic noise from spurious oscillations. Additionally, a Rayleigh damping-based calculation method and corresponding calibration procedure are proposed to model the attenuation of AE signals due to material damping. Using the developed approach, we systematically investigate the feasibility of lattice models for elastic wave propagation simulation, the dependence of lattice mesh sizes and the choice of numerical damping parameters. These results lead to a systematic framework which can be employed in simulating wave propagation with attenuation using DEM models in general including lattice models.

Major fire events in tunnels have shown severe consequences in their structural performance, as reported in several incidents in the last decades. Particularly, due to the enclos-ure geometry of tunnels, intense thermal loading may develop in comparison to typical fires in buildings, which may result in more damage. Even though tunnel linings are an important com-ponent in transportation infrastructure, the understanding of their behaviour under high tem-peratures is limited. This paper aims to study the thermo-mechanical response of tunnels subjected to fire using nonlinear finite element analysis (NLFEA). For this purpose, recent experimental tests of large-scale reinforced concrete tunnels with and without fire protection are simulated. Different modelling approaches and strategies are discussed, and a detailed descrip-tion of the constitutive model employed is presented. The results obtained in the simulations indicated that the numerical analysis can be used to investigate the thermo-mechanical behav-iour of concrete structures.

In the Netherlands, there are about 70 prestressed T-girder bridges with cast-inbetween decks, constructed post-WorldWar II.While they have low ratings upon assessment, inspections reveal no distress. This research aims to understand the structural behavior of the full system compared to isolated T-girders. Experiments were conducted on the original structure, as well as on the structure with the deck sawn to test individual girder behavior. The main insight is that the system behavior at the ultimate limit state is driven by compressive membrane action in the deck as well as compressive arching action in the girders, and that simplified distribution factors for shear derived from linear elastic behavior do not properly reflect the distribution and load path at the ultimate. These results can be used for a better assessment of the existing pre- stressed T-girder bridges.

As the existing bridge stock is aging, assessment of existing bridges becomes increasingly important. In the Netherlands, the shear capacity of reinforced concrete slab bridges is found to be insufficient. In particular, the shear and punching shear capacity of reinforced concrete slab bridges subjected to concentrated loads from the design tandem or truck is subject to discussion, as the shear behavior is situated in between oneway and two-way shear. Currently, an experimental program is being conducted at Delft University of Technology to determine the shear capacity of straight and skewed reinforced concrete slabs under point loads near to the support. This paper presents the results of the 25 tests conducted on six straight slabs of 5m × 2.5 m × 0.3 m subjected to a proof load testing loading protocol. The failure load and modes of the slabs are described in detail. Reinforced concrete slabs under concentrated loads can fail in shear, punching, and flexure, as well as a combination of these failure modes. The results of the experiments are compared to strength predictions obtained by using current design models and current methods for assessment. These experiments demonstrated that the Dutch guidelines, which are based on previous slab experiments, are an improvement as compared to the Eurocode for the assessment of existing reinforced concrete slab bridges. Ultimately, this work provides recommendations for bridge engineers tasked to assess reinforced concrete skewed slab bridges.

Given the ageing infrastructure, verifying the reliability of existing structures is crucial. Field testing presents a viable approach to evaluating a structure’s current condition, particularly proof load testing. In a proof load test, a large load is applied to assess its reliability. Structures in sound condition are expected to display satisfactory behaviour under average load intensities. Can good structural performance under moderate load levels already prove sufficient structural reliability? The proposed method utilises data from laboratory tests on similar structural elements. A case study was conducted on a bridge to illustrate the effectiveness of the method. Data acquired from laboratory tests were pre-processed to provide the required input for the reliability updating. It reveals that sufficient reliability can be demonstrated without excessive load levels by incorporating laboratory data. However, the actual capacity of the bridge and the uncertainty associated with the laboratory data remain important factors.

Proof load testing for assessment can involve a large risk due to the high loads. Stop criteria can reduce this risk. Stop criteria are necessary for shear, which is a brittle failure mode. This paper describes the development of shear stop criteria for slab strips. The shear stop criteria are developed by combining theoretical concepts related to cracking, as well the relationship between bending- and shear-critical regions, along with insights from the Critical Shear Crack Theory and the Critical Shear Displacement Theory. The shear stop criteria are validated with fourteen beam tests. The result is a set of shear stop criteria in a “traffic light system” with a green light level related to serviceability, and yellow and red light related to the ultimate limit state for shear. These stop criteria serve as the basis for a global approach for proof load testing of reinforced concrete bridges.

Monitoring or identifying structural cracks is crucial for assessing the health of existing concrete structures. Key information about structural cracking encompasses the location of the crack and its kinematics, which include movements perpendicular and parallel to the crack face. Acoustic emission (AE) is a sensitive technique for detecting the location of internal concrete cracking. However, the state-of-the-art AE monitoring methods offer limited information on crack kinematics, restricting the use of AE in crack assessment. To bridge this gap, this paper uses a recently proposed AE data analysis method that quantifies the spatial distribution of AE events along a crack probabilistically. This method uses a parameter referred to as the probability density of AE events (pdAE). By combining pdAE and crack kinematics measured by digital image correlation in a series of real-scale concrete beam tests, this paper investigates the relationship between AE events and crack kinematics. The analysed cracks are generated by a combination of bending moment and shear forces, as commonly observed in real structural concrete members. We find that the amount of AE events is not only related to crack width (the crack movement perpendicular to the crack face), as most literature suggests, but also to the complete crack kinematics throughout the loading history of the member. We then provide a physical explanation for the observed relationships between concrete crack kinematics and the quantity of AE events.

Due to the accompanying severe consequences of explosions, the blast puts a great threat to public security. Nonlinear finite element analysis is a possible method for civil engineers to check the integrity of the structures under blast loading without underestimating the limit of the structures. However, different choices of element types would generally put a great influence on the analytical results and the corresponding computational expenses. Therefore, how should civil engineers simplify their physical model into finite element models to gain relatively accurate numerical results with acceptable computational expenses is of great interest. In this article, 6 different types of elements are discussed with different orders and shapes for a certain physical situation, and the corresponding experimental results and the numerical results for a very detailed finite element model are used as the baseline for judgement, which could be helpful for civil engineers to make proper simplifications in the set-up of finite element models.

Bond deterioration is one of the major consequences of reinforcement corrosion in reinforced concrete (RC) structures. In this paper, a two-phased numerical modelling approach is presented that aims to determine the constitutive behaviour (bond–slip) at the reinforcement-concrete interface at a certain corrosion level. The novelty of the approach is that it consists of a crack model and a bond model, and that the flow of corrosion products into the pores and corrosion-induced cracks as well as the effect of the bonded length and concrete cover are taken into account in the 2D crack model. The resulting expansion of corrosion products from the crack model is used as input in the 3D bond model. The combination of both models leads to a procedure that balances computational time and modelling detail. The model is validated on a substantial amount of experimental pull-out test results. A good agreement is obtained between the experimental data and the models for different corrosion levels in terms of crack width, crack pattern, corrosion-induced bond loss, and failure mode.

Frost salt scaling of concrete is related to cyclic freezing and melting of a few millimeter thick deicer solution on the surface of the concrete. It is almost absent when pure water is freezing and reaches a maximum at a so-called pessimum concentration that for NaCl is around 3%. Different mechanisms have been suggested to explain this pessimum and frost salt scaling in general, ranging from the transport of moisture and growth of ice within the pore space of concrete (“cryogenic suction”) to crack formation in the saline ice layer followed by spalling off the surface (“glue-spall”). Though in these theories the saline ice layer, that forms in concrete frost salt scaling experiments, plays a major role, so far little is known about its properties. We present a characterisation and an analysis of the microstructure of this saline ice layer by means of 3D X-ray microtomography. We found that the morphology of the saline ice is very similar to young, columnar sea ice, with lamellae of ice and brine oriented in the direction of freezing. On the basis of the microscopic 3D image data, we formulated percolation-based models of macroscopic properties (e.g., strength, thermal expansion coefficient, porosity metrics) relevant for different proposed frost salt scaling mechanisms. Model results and observations suggest that the ice growth velocity, direction and confinement, have a major impact on the pore structure of saline ice, thereby governing both mechanical and transport properties. These properties in turn are expected to affect proposed frost salt scaling mechanisms of concrete. The microstructure length scales in the ice-brine composite (lamellar spacing, pore width) are comparable to those for concrete (air void spacing and size), suggesting complex poro-mechanical interaction at the interface of concrete and saline ice. The results highlight the importance of studying saline ice properties to improve predictions of frost salt scaling processes.

Sequentially Linear Analysis (SLA), an event-by-event solution strategy in which a sequence of scaled linear analyses with decreasing secant stiffness is performed, representing local damage increments; is a robust alternative to nonlinear finite element analysis of quasi-brittle structures. Since it is based on a fixed smeared crack constitutive model, severe spurious stresses and inaccuracies may develop due to misalignment of the crack with the principal stress directions. To this end, the elastic-brittle fraction model was conceived. The model separates the continuum into several parallel fractions or layers, each with different properties, chosen in order to represent the overall constitutive softening behaviour as accurately as possible. The main idea is to mimick a rotating crack by a superposition of fractions, each with a fixed crack direction. In this article, the model is presented for both the 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional frameworks, with a general transition from any saw-tooth law to fraction material properties. The fraction models are then validated and compared against the fixed crack model with SLA: using single element and structural case studies. It is shown that the fraction model is able to mimick the rotating crack model, that it leads to lesser spurious cracks and narrower localisation bands, and in turn results in a more flexible post-peak response over all case studies compared to the fixed crack model.

Coda wave interferometry (CWI) holds promise as a technique for concrete stress monitoring. This is because the coda, which consists of multiply scattered arrivals, is the result of propagation through the medium over large distances. As such, it is sensitive to both minute structural changes and small velocity changes in that medium. Previous studies focusing on concrete have predominantly utilized the time-domain-based stretching technique to measure travel-time changes. There is, however, a lack of consensus on how to quantify these changes effectively. In this study, we conduct a systematic comparison between two techniques, namely the stretching technique and the wavelet cross-spectrum (WCS) technique, for measuring stress-induced velocity changes in a cylindrical concrete sample. Our comparison focuses on two key aspects: (i) stability against cycle skipping and (ii) consistency in retrieving velocity changes. Experimental results reveal that both the WCS technique and the stretching technique yield consistent velocity changes. In terms of stability, it is challenging to determine which technique performs better, due to differences in the mechanisms triggering cycle skipping. However, when considering waves with frequencies ranging from 50 kHz to 80 kHz, both techniques exhibit comparable performance. Based on our findings, we offer the following recommendations for utilizing these CWI techniques in concrete stress monitoring: For the stretching technique, selecting the time window length based on the wave frequency and the expected magnitude of velocity change. For the WCS technique, operating it in the frequency band where spectral decomposition shows sufficiently high energy in the signal and can accommodate the expected magnitude of velocity change.