Smooth cycling can improve the competitiveness of bicycles. Understanding cycling speed variation during a trip reveals the infrastructure or situations which promote or prevent smooth cycling. However, research on this topic is still limited. This study analyses speed variation based on data collected in the Netherlands, using GPS-based devices, continuously recording geographical positions and thus the variation in speeds during trips. Linking GPS data to spatial data sources adds features that vary during the trip. Multilevel mixed-effects models were estimated to test the influence of factors at cyclist, trip and tracking point levels. Results show that individuals who prefer a high speed have a higher average personal speed. Longer trips and trips made by conventional electric bicycles and sport bicycles have a higher average trip speed. Tracking point level variables explain intra-trip cycling speed variations. Light-medium precipitation and tailwind increase cycling speed, while both uphill and downhill cycling is relatively slow. Cycling in natural and industrial areas is relatively fast. Intersections, turns and their adjacent roads decrease cycling speed. The higher the speed, the stronger the influence of infrastructure on speed. Separate bicycle infrastructure, such as bike tracks, streets and lanes, increase speed. These findings are useful in the areas of cycling safety, mode choice models and bicycle accessibility analysis. Furthermore, these findings provide additional evidence for smooth cycling infrastructure construction.

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The bicycle is a very important mode for travel in various countries, particularly in the Netherlands. However, it is in practice often modelled with less detail than other urban modes, such as the car and public transport. Moreover, the increasing use of e-bikes and the differences with conventional bikes show that more research into this transport mode is needed. E-bikes require less physical effort and allow higher speeds, making the e-bike suitable for longer distances. The goals of this research are to (1) create a mode choice model that predicts an accurate modal split for urban areas in the Netherlands and this model is used to (2) find significant factors that influence the modal split, in order to support municipalities of Dutch urban areas to stimulate the use of the (e-)bike. Within both goals, potential differences between conventional bikes and e-bikes are considered. A conceptual model, following from the literature, describes the assumed modal choice including factors relevant to cycling. Data was used mainly from the Dutch National Travel Survey (ODiN). Discrete choice models, a multinomial logit and a nested logit, are estimated to identify significant influencing factors. Results show that a nested logit model is the most explanatory one compared to the other models, with a rho-square-bar of 0.469. The model includes 15 main variables, 3 quadratic components and 4 interaction effects. The nested structure is formed by a correlation between the bike and the e-bike. The factors that show to be generally highly influential for the bike and the e-bike are the travel distance, owning a driver’s license and street density. The model is practically applicable for municipalities to form expectations in the modal shift for changes in their networks or policies. However, modelling these changes has not been validated and thus needs further research.@en

Travel-related attitudes are believed to affect the connections between the built environment and travel behaviour. Previous studies found supporting evidence for the residential self-selection hypothesis which suggests that the impact of the built environment on travel behaviour could be overestimated when attitudes are not accounted for. However, this hypothesis is under scrutiny as the reverse causality hypothesis, which implies a reverse direction of influence from the built environment towards attitudes, is receiving increased attention in recent research. This study tests both directions of influence by means of cross-sectional and longitudinal structural equation models. GPS tracking is used to assess changes in travel behaviour in terms of car kilometres travelled. The outcomes show stronger reverse causality effects than residential self-selection effects and that land-use policies significantly reduce car kilometres travelled. Moreover, the longitudinal models show that the built environment characteristics provide a better explanation for changes in car kilometres travelled than the travel-related attitudes. This contradicts the cross-sectional analysis where associations between car kilometres travelled and travel-related attitudes were stronger. This highlights the need for more longitudinal studies in this field.

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Wat is de wisselwerking tussen de gebouwde omgeving, mobiliteit en attitudes? Oftewel: in hoeverre kunnen we duurzame mobiliteit stimuleren door knooppuntontwikkeling en stedelijke verdichting? En wat is de rol van attitudes hierbij? Met een longitudinaal onderzoek met GPS-data zijn veranderingen in het verplaatsingsgedrag nu gedetailleerd in beeld gebracht en komen nieuwe inzichten over deze wisselwerking aan het licht. Deze wisselwerking kan flinke consequenties hebben voor de effectiviteit van ruimtelijk mobiliteitsbeleid. En daar steken we nog decennialang erg veel geld en energie in.@en

The importance of attitudes in the relationship between travel behaviour (TB) and the built environment (BE) has been the subject of debate in the literature for about two decades. In line with the Theory of Planned Behaviour, attitudes – which affect behaviour – are generally assumed to be constant. However, it is plausible that attitudes can change, both directly, or indirectly, through the impact of the built environment on travel behaviour, a process which is referred to as reverse causality (RC). Based on literature from social psychology, this paper provides a conceptual model for the explanation of attitude changes. It also reviews the literature in the area of BE and TB concluding that two explanations dominate: a change in attitudes due to new experiences which can be underpinned by learning theories, and a change in attitudes due to mismatches between attitudes and behaviour which can be explained by cognitive dissonance theories. The literature also suggests a few additional explanations, while we also suggest explanations not provided in travel behaviour literature. Finally, we present an agenda for future research.@en

In this paper we propose the concept of ‘substitutability’, which we define as the extent to which the preferred travel alternative can be substituted by other initially less preferred alternatives. This is particularly of interest when the preferred alternative is no longer available, e.g. due to labour strikes, weather conditions, power failures, etc. Travel alternatives in this context can comprise of activities, modes, time of day, and routes. We argue that substitutability is a promising new concept, which is relevant for travel behaviour research. In particular, substitutability is relevant from an accessibility perspective, as well as from the perspective of ‘freedom of choice’. In this paper we conceptualise the concept of substitutability, present a mathematical expression for it and discuss its relationships with other related concepts in the travel behaviour research field, such as the freedom of choice, accessibility, and robustness/reliability. We illustrate the concept of substitutability using a case study, where we look at the extent to which airports can be substituted by other airports, and by high-speed railway stations, conditional on a given destination, namely the cities of Paris, London and Frankfurt. Finally, we present a research agenda.@en

Travel-related attitudes and dissonance between attitudes and the characteristics of the residential built environment are believed to play an important role in the effectiveness of land use policies that aim to influence travel behaviour. To date, research on the nature and directions of causality of the links between these variables has been hindered by the lack of longitudinal approaches. This paper takes such an approach by exploring how people across different population groups adjust their residential environments and attitudes over time. Two latent class transition models are used to segment a population into consonant and dissonant classes to reveal differences in their adjustment process. Interactions between (1) the distance to railway stations and travel-mode-related attitudes and (2) the distance to shopping centres and the importance of satisfaction with these distances are modelled. The models reveal mixed patterns in consonant and dissonant classes at different distances from these destinations. These patterns remain relatively stable over time. People in more dissonant classes generally do not have a higher probability of switching to more consonant classes. People adjust their built environments as well as their attitudes over time and these processes differ between classes. Implications for policies are discussed.

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Sinds ruim 20 jaar is het gebruikelijk attitudes mee te nemen in onderzoek naar het effect van de gebouwde omgeving op reisgedrag. Attitudes worden in het meeste onderzoek als gegeven beschouwd. Maar dat hoeft niet zo te zijn: ze kunnen veranderen. Dit noemen we reverse causality. In dit paper onderzoeken we welke verklaringen de literatuur biedt voor dergelijke veranderingen, welke achterliggende theorieën die verklaringen ondersteunen, en in welke mate we de verklaringen tegenkomen in de literatuur. Tenslotte stellen we een onderzoekagenda voor. De drie categorieën verklaringen die we presenteren, zijn affectieve, gedragsmatige en cognitieve verklaringen. Diverse (psychologische) theorieën ondersteunen een of meerdere van die categorieën verklaringen. In de literatuur domineren affectieve en gedragsmatige verklaringen. Door een verhuizing of veranderende omgeving doen mensen andere ervaringen op, waardoor ze hun gedrag aanpassen (affectieve verklaringen), die worden ondersteund door theorieën over hoe mensen leren. En als het gedrag van mensen niet overeenkomt met hun attitudes, passen ze soms hun attitudes aan, een mechanisme dat wordt verklaard met de Cognitieve Dissonantie Theorie. We stellen dat meer onderzoek op dit terrein gewenst is omdat attitudeveranderingen een grote rol lijken te spelen in keuzegedrag. Het gaat om onderzoek naar de vraag welke mensen op welke termijn en onder welke omstandigheden hun attitudes aanpassen. Daarbij is het bovendien zinvol om de invloed van ICT op attitudeveranderingen te onderzoeken. Dit type onderzoek vraagt om een combinatie van kwalitatief en kwantitatief onderzoek.@en

As people require time to adjust their travel behaviour to changes in residential location and transport infrastructure, there is a need for long-term empirical studies quantifying the relationships between locations, individuals and travel behaviour. Such empirical evidence is critical for assessing previous and candidate future land use-transport policies. Existing research however, has mostly investigated travel behaviour during relatively short time periods and for a single transport mode. This paper examines the development of travel behaviour and its socio-demographic and location determinants, using Dutch National Travel Survey data from 1980 to 2010 among other sources, for the Randstad, the Netherlands. A pseudo panel analysis is conducted to investigate the effect of various indicators on average daily distance travelled by train, car and bicycle over three decades. Econometric models including pooled ordinary least squares, fixed and random effects and a hybrid model were tested to identify the best fit. The results indicate that average daily distance travelled rose until the mid-1990s before witnessing a decrease till 2010. Interestingly, half of the Randstad inhabitants have been travelling ≤26 km per day over the past thirty years. Furthermore, as people grow older, they increasingly travel more by train and bicycle. Finally, a rise in suburban inhabitants decreases the average distance travelled by train and increases that of bicycle, while a rise in rural inhabitants encourages higher distances travelled by car.

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Transport accessibility is assumed to be a main driver of urbanisation. Like many other metropolitan regions, the Randstad, the population and economic core of the Netherlands has experienced significant urbanisation, transport network expansion and spatial policies aimed to channel urban growth. This paper investigates the long-term relationships between the development of railway and motorway networks, urbanisation, and spatial policies, by using a panel dataset consisting of grid cells measured at six time points from 1960 to 2010. Generalised Estimating Equations analysis was applied to model the built-up area. Predictors include proximity to and accessibility by transport infrastructure, vicinity of urban areas, and spatial policies. Results indicate that road and rail accessibility alike, stably influenced urbanisation, but less than proximity to urban areas. Spatial policies played a significant role in channelling new urbanisation, while preserving the centrally located green and mainly rural area. Remarkably, the legacy of earlier policies is still significant despite shifts in predominant Dutch spatial policies. The findings are expected to be relevant for comparable poly-nuclear areas.@en

City and regional governments in North America and the Netherlands are implementing transit-oriented development (TOD) policies to provide residents with accessible and compact communities that are socially, environmentally, and economically sustainable. Through 13 in-depth semi-structured interviews with planners and transportation professionals in the United States, Canada, and the Netherlands, this study attempts to identify the factors that practitioners in these regions determine to be essential for the post-development success of TOD. Our analysis reveals that seven key elements contribute to the success of TOD which are approached differently by planners in the three regions. The study concludes by suggesting ways in which professionals could integrate land use and transportation projects based on planning for flexibility, accessibility, and collaboration.

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Rechtvaardigheid is, naast effectiviteit en efficiëntie, een van drie belangrijke criteria voor goed beleid, maar in de transportwereld ontbreekt het tot nog toe aan kwantitatieve evaluatiemethodes voor rechtvaardigheid. Dit artikel presenteert een methode gebaseerd op de Gini-index voor inkomensongelijkheid en twee ethische theorieën.@en

Transport infrastructure plays a fundamental part in the development of cities and regions. Important transport routes generate substantial development pressure. In the past, city centres had the strongest effect on the location of activities but more recently there is the view that accessibility to the motorway system is more important for some employment location decisions. Various types of employment sectors can now be found in clusters, often close to transport infrastructure, despite technological developments that theoretically make proximity less important (see for example Forkenbrock and Foster, 1996; Krugman, 1991; Quigley, 1998; Scott, 1998).

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Improvements in geographical information systems, the wider availability of high-resolution digital data and more sophisticated econometric techniques have all contributed to increasing academic interest and activity in long-term impacts of transport infrastructure networks (TINs) on land use (LU). This paper provides a systematic review of recent empirical evidence from the USA, Europe and East Asia, classified regarding the type of transport infrastructure (road or rail), LU indicator (land cover, population or employment density, development type) and outcome (significance, relationship’s direction) as well as influential exogenous factors. Proximity to the rail network is generally associated with population growth (particularly soon after the development of railway infrastructure), conversion to residential uses and the development of higher residential densities. Meanwhile, proximity to the road network is frequently associated with increases in employment densities as well as the conversion of land to a variety of urban uses including commercial and industrial development. Compared with road infrastructure, the impact of rail infrastructure is often less significant for land cover or population and employment density change. The extent of TINs’ impact on LU over time can be explained by the saturation in TIN-related accessibility and LU development.

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Long-term, large-scale empirical studies on the simultaneous development of transport infrastructure and the built environment are scarce. This paper provides a long-term study of the development of the railway network and its impact on the built-up area—and vice versa—using the case study of the Randstad in the Netherlands between 1850 and 2010. The analysis is both qualitative and quantitative. We describe the shares of the built-up area in concentric buffers of 1-kilometer intervals from railway stations and estimate binomial logit models to predict the likelihood of new stations being built based on the amount of the preceding and subsequent built-up area and the likelihood that a new station might have encouraged further growth. Results show that during the early days stations followed existing urbanization patterns. But as time went by, new stations were more likely to be located in undeveloped areas and less likely to be located within the established built-up areas, which were already serviced by existing stations. Moreover, they prompted further growth, increasing the likelihood of more urbanization in their vicinity.@en

The influence of the built environment on travel behaviour and the role of intervening variables such as socio-demographics and travel-related attitudes have long been debated in the literature. To date, most empirical studies have applied cross-sectional designs to investigate their bidirectional relationships. However, these designs provide limited evidence for causality. This study represents one of the first attempts to employ a longitudinal design on these relationships. We applied cross lagged panel structural equation models to a two-wave longitudinal dataset to assess the directions and strengths of the relationships between the built environment, travel behaviour and travel-related attitudes. Results show that the residential built environment has a small but significant influence on car use and travel attitudes. In addition, the built environment influenced travel-related attitudes indicating that people tend to adjust their attitudes to their built environment. This provides some support for land use policies that aim to influence travel behaviour.

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