Improper fuel loading decision results in carrying excessive dead weight during flight operation, which will burden the airline operation cost and cause extra waste emission. Existing works mainly focused on the post-event fuel consumption based on flight trajectory. In this work, a novel deep learning model, called FCPNet, is proposed to achieve the fuel consumption prediction (FCP) before the flight departure. Considering the influential factors for aircraft performance, the multi-modal information sources, including the planned route, weather information, and operation details, are selected as the model input to predict fuel consumption. Correspondingly, three modules are innovatively proposed to learn embedding features from multi-modal inputs. Based on the planned route, the graph convolutional network is proposed to mine the spatial correlations in the non-Eulerian route network. Considering the grid attributes of the weather information, the ConvLSTM is applied to learn abstract representations from both the temporal and spatial dimensions, in which the three-dimensional convolution neural networks are also designed to fine-tune intermediate feature maps. The fully connected layer is also proposed to learn informative features from operation details. Finally, an attention-based fusion network is presented to generate the final embedding by considering the unique contributions of the multi-modality sources, which are further applied to predict flight fuel consumption. A binary encoding representation is proposed to formulate the FCP task as a multi-binary classification problem. The proposed model is validated on a real-world dataset, and the results demonstrate that it outperforms other baselines, i.e., achieving a 6.50% mean absolute percentage error, which can practically support the airline operation and global emission control before flight departure.

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Machine intelligence fault prediction (MIFP) is crucial for ensuring complex systems' safe and reliable operation. While deep learning has become the mainstream tool for MIFP due to its excellent learning abilities, its interpretability is limited, and it struggles to learn frequencies, making it challenging to understand the physical knowledge of signals at the frequency level. Therefore, this article proposes a physically interpretable wavelet-guided network (WaveGNet) with deep frequency separation for MIFP, inspired by the sound theoretical basis and physical meaning of discrete wavelet transform (DWT). WaveGNet expands the feature learning space of CNN into the frequency domain, allowing for a better understanding of the physical insights behind the frequency level. Specifically, WaveGNet involves a derivable and learnable frequency learning layer (FL-Layer) consisting of a wavelet-driven frequency decomposition module and a convolution-driven feature learning module. Multiple DWT-driven FL-Layers are used in WaveGNet to achieve deep frequency decomposition and multiresolution frequency feature learning in a coarse-to-fine manner. The effectiveness of WaveGNet was evaluated in real high-speed train wheel wear monitoring and high-speed aviation bearing fault diagnosis cases. Experimental results showed that WaveGNet outperforms cutting-edge deep learning algorithms and has excellent fault diagnosis and prediction abilities. Furthermore, an in-depth analysis of the learning mechanism of wavelet-driven CNN from the frequency domain perspective was conducted.

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Predicting Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) for a Multi-Airport System (MAS) is much more challenging than for a single airport system because of complex air route structure, dense air traffic volume and vagaries of traffic conditions in an MAS. In this work, we propose a novel “Bubble” mechanism to accurately predict medium-term ETA for a Multi-Airport System (MAS), in which the prediction of travel time of an origin–destination (OD) pair is decomposed into two stages, termed as out-MAS and in-MAS stages. For the out-MAS stage, Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) is used to predict the travel time of a flight to reach the MAS boundary. For the in-MAS stage, we construct new spatio-temporal features based on clustering analysis of trajectory patterns facilitated by a novel data-driven hybrid polar sampling method. A sequence-to-sequence prediction model, Multi-variate Stacked Fully connected Bidirectional Long–Short Term Memory, is further developed to achieve multi-step-ahead predictions of in-MAS travel time for each trajectory pattern using the spatio-temporal features as input. Finally, the medium-term ETA prediction for an MAS is achieved by integrating the out-MAS and in-MAS prediction with the help of trajectory pattern prediction via random forest. A case study of predicting medium-term ETA for a typical MAS in China, Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area, is conducted to demonstrate the usage and promising performance of the proposed method in comparison to several commonly used end-to-end learning methods.

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Urban Air Mobility (UAM) is an emerging form of aerial transportation which plans to use electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing aircraft (eVTOLs) in urban areas. Realistic demand estimations are required to determine if demand would be sufficient to warrant implementation of UAM in urban areas. However, modelling UAM demand accurately is complex due to the infrastructure required for implementation and the lack of research available. Therefore new approaches are needed which begs the question "How can UAM demand in urban areas be estimated?". In this article, the Île-de-France region was used as an example and its demand for UAM was estimated. To perform this demand estimation, the four-step model was followed with activity-based and discrete choice models being used in trip generation and mode choice respectively. By doing this, the number of trips produced by and attracted to each zone was determined, as well as the mode of transportation individuals would utilize. Despite this model achieving a valid demand estimation, it is limited as many trips were neglected due to the use of an inter-zonal approach. It was found that the zone with the highest attraction per day is Paris, with 61.28 % of the total attraction, followed by Hauts-de-Seine (11.76 %). The key result of our model was that UAM had a mode share of 34.1% in our data set when competing with cars and public transport, hence UAM is viable in Île-de-France for inter-zonal trips. From this, a more general method that can be applied to other regions can be developed and used in the future. For future UAM demand estimation models, the main recommendation would be to use household-based approach instead of a zonal approach during trip generation, leading to the inclusion of more trips in the data set and the consideration of vertiport placement.@en

The terminal airspace that surrounds an airport is the area with high flight density and complex structure. Aircraft are asked to follow the standard arrival and departure routes in terminal airspace, yet the actual trajectories may deviate due to air traffic control (ATC) instructions, pilots' decisions, surveillance and flying performance variations, etc. Predicting aircraft trajectories considering such uncertainties plays a crucial role in evaluating a redesign of the standard routes. Traditional simulation approaches for generating aircraft trajectories in a terminal airspace are cumbersome to use as it requires a detailed setup for each new scenario, while most existing data-driven methods can only be used in an airspace with historical trajectories, not applicable to new structure designs or other terminal areas. To fill in gap, in this paper, we develop a new model based on Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network (MLPNN) to predict aircraft trajectories with uncertainties for terminal airspace design evaluations. A key feature of the proposed model is that it is trained on existing standard routes yet it can be applied to new standard routes to generate trajectories. The enabler of the model's transferability is a novel input-and-output construction method for feature representations of raw trajectory data based on domain knowledge, including trajectory reconstruction, feature engineering, and output designing. After the input-and-output construction, a supervised learning model based on MLPNN is built to predict the standard deviations from the extracted features using historical trajectory data of existing standard routes. Once the model is built, trajectories with uncertainty can be simulated, through applying Gaussian distribution and exponential moving average algorithms, even on newly designed standard routes, where no aircraft have flown yet. Subsequently, new terminal airspace designs could be evaluated for their safety, efficiency, and environmental implications based on the simulated trajectories. The proposed model was tested on real-world operational data. Results showed that the model can quantify the characteristics of aircraft trajectories that are transferable across standard routes, and generate trajectories for new standard routes. We also demonstrated the proposed model on evaluating deficiencies on fuel consumption of actual arrival trajectories compared with the designed arrival routes. The generated trajectories showed 23%–37% more fuel consumption on average than the standard arrival routes in the terminal airspace of Hong Kong International Airport, which was validated with actual flight data.

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A multiple-airport system (MAS) consists of more than two airports in a metropolitan area under a large block of terminal airspace that is managed by one or two air traffic control units. When the capacity of an airport or of the terminal airspace drops, flight delays occur in the MAS system. A quick estimation and predication of traffic congestion in the MAS is important yet challenging. This paper aims to develop a queuing network model of MAS using point-wise stationary queues. The model analyzes the changes of non-stationary queues under the principle of flow conservation to capture flight delay propagation in the system. Regression analyses are performed to examine the relationship between the arrival and departure efficiencies of different airports. The model is validated with the data of Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area airports. Simulation results show that the model can effectively estimate flight delays in the MAS.

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Traffic congestion and accidents take a toll on commuters' daily experiences and society. Locating the venues prone to congestion and accidents and capturing their perception by public members is invaluable for transport policy-makers. However, few previous methods consider user perception toward the accidents and congestion in finding and profiling the accident- and congestion-prone areas, leaving decision-makers unaware of the subsequent behavior responses and priorities of retrofitting measures. This study develops a framework to identify and characterize the accident- and congestion-prone areas heatedly discussed on social media. First, we use natural language processing and deep learning to detect the accident- and congestion-relevant Chinese microblogs posted on Sina Weibo, a Chinese social media platform. Then a modified Kernel Density Estimation method considering the sentiment of microblogs is employed to find the accident- and congestion-prone regions. The results show that the 'congestion-prone areas' discussed on social media are mainly distributed throughout the historical urban core and the Northwest of Pudong New Area, in reasonably good agreements with actual congestion records. In contrast, the 'accident-prone areas' are primarily found in locations with severe accidents. Finally, the above venues are characterized in spatio-temporal and semantic aspects to understand the nature of the incidents and assess the priority level for mitigation measures. The outcomes can provide a reference for traffic authorities to inform resource allocation and prioritize mitigation measures in future traffic management.

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Urban rail development can increase land value, reduce commute time, and increase accessibility, as reported in the literature. However, little is known about the impact of opening urban rail transit stations on people's sentiment, particularly in the context of large metropolises where population density is significantly high. This paper investigates such impact by studying six new transit stations opened in Hong Kong. People's sentiment and activity in station nearby areas are estimated by tweet sentiment and tweet activity. We use the difference-in-difference model to study the impact of opening new transit stations. Tweet sentiment, tweet activity, tweet content, and footprints of people who visit the station-influenced area ‘before and after’ the opening of transit stations are analyzed. The results suggest that, in general, the introduction of transit stations causes a positive change in tweet activity, and the change is statistically significant after six months. Regarding tweet sentiment, new transit stations tend to pose a mixed effect in a short-term, a positive influence on areas with high-density residential places, yet a negative influence on areas with a large proportion of nature reserve areas. These short-term effects, positive or negative, become not significant in the long term (after twelve months). Our analysis also confirmed that the introduction of new transit stations increased accessibility from (to) other parts of the city to(from) the station's nearby area, which was shown by the expanded locations sustaining users visited. These findings indicate that the urban rail transit system in Hong Kong promotes more active neighborhoods yet does not always promotes positive influence on people's sentiment. Further studies are needed to make future urban rail transit systems promoting active and happy neighborhoods. The study is relevant to the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in methodologies, data, and findings. The social media analysis method used in this study, including text mining and sentiment analysis, can be easily extended to multiple language analysis for Singapore, Malaysia, as well as other regions in the belt and road plan. The developed tools could contribute to analyzing the influence of cross-country projects on local neighborhoods in the belt and road plan.

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Problem definition: Warranty reserves are funds used to fulfill future warranty obligations for a product. In this paper, we investigate the warranty reserve planning problem faced by a manufacturing firm who manages warranties for multiple products. Academic/practical relevance: It is nontrivial to determine a proper amount of reserves to hold, because warranty expenditures are random in nature and reserving either excess or insufficient cash would incur losses. How can warranty reserve levels be optimized and promptly adjusted is a focal issue, especially for firms selling multiple products. Methodology: Inspired by the general pattern of empirical warranty claims data, we first develop an aggregate warranty cost (AWC) forecasting model for a single product by coupling stochastic product sales and failure processes, which can be used to plan for warranty reserves periodically. The reserve levels are then optimized via a distributionally robust approach, because the exact distribution of AWC is generally unknown. To reduce the losses generated from managing the funds, we further investigate two potential loss-reduction approaches: demand learning and funds pooling. Results: For the demand learning algorithm, we prove that, as the sales period grows, the optimal learning parameter asymptotically converges to a constant in a fairly fast rate; our simulation experiments show that the performance of demand learning is promising and robust under general warranty claim patterns. Moreover, we find that the benefits of funds pooling change over different stages of the warranty life cycle; in particular, the relative pooling benefit in terms of reserve losses is nonincreasing over time. Managerial implications: This study offers guidelines on how manufacturers should adaptively forecast and dynamically plan warranty reserves over the warranty life cycle.

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UAS-based commercial services such as urban parcel delivery are expected to grow in the upcoming years and may lead to a large volume of UAS operations in urban areas. These flights may pose safety risks to persons and property on the ground, which are referred to as third-party risks. Path-planning methods have been developed to generate a nominal flight path for each UAS flight that poses relative low third-party risks by passing over less risky areas, e.g., areas with low-density unsheltered populations. However, it is not clear if risk minimization per flight works well in a commercial UAS operation that involves a large number of annual flights in an urban area. Recently, it has been shown that when using shortest flight path planning, a UAS-based parcel delivery service in an urban area can lead to society-critical third-party risk levels. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the mitigating effect of state-of-the-art risk-aware path planning on these society-critical third-party risk levels. To accomplish this, a third-party risk simulation using the shortest paths is extended with a state-of-the-art risk-aware path-planning method, and the societal effects on third-party risk levels have been assessed and compared to those obtained using shortest paths. The results show that state-of-the-art risk-aware path planning can reduce the total number of fatalities in an area, but at the cost of a critical increase in safety risks for persons living in areas that are favored by a state-of-the-art risk-aware path-planning method.

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Short-term forecasting of passenger flow is critical for transit management and crowd regulation. Spatial dependencies, temporal dependencies, inter-station correlations driven by other latent factors, and exogenous factors bring challenges to the short-term forecasts of passenger flow of urban rail transit networks. An innovative deep learning approach, Multi-Graph Convolutional-Recurrent Neural Network (MGC-RNN) is proposed to forecast passenger flow in urban rail transit systems to incorporate these complex factors. We propose to use multiple graphs to encode the spatial and other heterogenous inter-station correlations. The temporal dynamics of the inter-station correlations are also modeled via the proposed multi-graph convolutional-recurrent neural network structure. Inflow and outflow of all stations can be collectively predicted with multiple time steps ahead via a sequence to sequence(seq2seq) architecture. The proposed method is applied to the short-term forecasts of passenger flow in Shenzhen Metro, China. The experimental results show that MGC-RNN outperforms the benchmark algorithms in terms of forecasting accuracy. Besides, it is found that the inter-station driven by network distance, network structure, and recent flow patterns are significant factors for passenger flow forecasting. Moreover, the architecture of LSTM-encoder-decoder can capture the temporal dependencies well. In general, the proposed framework could provide multiple views of passenger flow dynamics for fine prediction and exhibit a possibility for multi-source heterogeneous data fusion in the spatiotemporal forecast tasks.

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With the dynamic air traffic demand and the constrained capacity resources, accurately predicting airport throughput is essential to ensure the efficiency and resilience of air traffic operations. Many research efforts have been made to predict traffic throughputs or flight delays at an airport or over a network. However, it is still a challenging problem due to the complex spatiotemporal dynamics of the highly interacted air transportation systems. To address this challenge, we propose a novel deep learning model, graph attention neural network stacking with a Long short-term memory unit (GAT-LSTM), to predict the short-term airport throughput over a national air traffic network. LSTM layers are included to extract the temporal correlations in the data, while the graph attention mechanism is used to capture the spatial dependencies. For the graph attention mechanism, two graph modeling methods, airport-based graph and OD-pair graph are explored in this study. We tested the proposed model using real-world air traffic data involving 65 major airports in China over 3 months in 2017 and compared its performance with other state-of-the-art models. Results showed that the temporal pattern was the dominate factor, compared to the spatial pattern, in predicting airport throughputs over an air traffic network. Among the prediction models that we compared, both the proposed model and LSTM performed well on prediction accuracy over the entire network. Better performance of the proposed model was observed when focusing on airports with larger throughputs. We also conducted an analysis on model interpretability. We found that spatiotemporal correlations in the data were learned and shown via the model parameters, which helped us to gain insights into the topology and the dynamics of the air traffic network.

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High-tech giants and start-ups are investing in drone technologies to provide urban air delivery service, which is expected to solve the last-mile problem and mitigate road traffic congestion. However, air delivery service will not scale up without proper traffic management for drones in dense urban environment. Currently, a range of Concepts of Operations (ConOps) for unmanned aircraft system traffic management (UTM) are being proposed and evaluated by researchers, operators, and regulators. Among these, the tube-based (or corridor-based) ConOps has emerged in operations in some regions of the world for drone deliveries and is expected to continue serving certain scenarios that with dense and complex airspace and requires centralized control in the future. Towards the tube-based ConOps, we develop a route network planning method to design routes (tubes) in a complex urban environment in this paper. In this method, we propose a priority structure to decouple the network planning problem, which is NP-hard, into single-path planning problems. We also introduce a novel space cost function to enable the design of dense and aligned routes in a network. The proposed method is tested on various scenarios and compared with other state-of-the-art methods. Results show that our method can generate near-optimal route networks with significant computational time-savings.

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In the above article [1], Table I, III, and IV should show 'N/m' instead of 'kN/m' and they should also show 'Ns/m' instead of 'kNs/m.' The revised tables are shown below. Also, in (1), “k_pw ” should be changed to “k_pw.” And on page 2952, first line, in the left column, “They also found…” should be changed to “We also found…”.

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“The Image of the City” by Kevin Lynch is a landmark planning theory of lasting influence; its scientific rigor and relevance in the digital age were in dispute. The rise of social media and other digital technologies offers new opportunities to study the perception of urban environments. Questions remain as to whether social media analytics can provide a reliable measure of perceived city images? If yes, what implication does it hold for urban planners? This paper describes a study on the perception of city images using a combination of “big data” and “small data” methods in the Tri-City Region in Poland. The aims were to 1) test the hypothesis whether social media analytics can elicit Lynchian elements of city image in consistency with conventional methods, and 2) develop and evaluate social media-based indicators of Imageability for planning practice. Geo-tagged images and texts were collected from Instagram and Twitter, two popular social media platforms in Poland. Text-Mining, Image Processing, Clustering Analysis, Kernel Density Estimation, and Sentiment Analysis were used. Results were compared with benchmarks constructed from official GIS database, questionnaire responses and sketch maps. “District”, “landmark”, and “path” identified on social media were in good agreements with benchmarks, less so for “edge” and “node”. Two social media-based indicators have influenced the perception of a place: Instagramability, the frequency of a place captured on Instagram, was linked to its perception as an architectural landmark and tourist attraction, while Twitterability, the frequency of a place mentioned on Twitter by name, was linked to its perceived niceness and relevance to everyday life of communities. Methods developed in this study have theoretical and practical implications for urban planners.

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Under increasing economic and environmental pressure, airlines are constantly seeking new technologies and optimizing flight operations to reduce fuel consumption. However, the current practice on fuel loading, which has a significant impact on aircraft weight and fuel consumption, has yet to be thoroughly addressed by existing studies. Excess fuel is loaded by dispatchers and (or) pilots to handle fuel consumption uncertainties, primarily caused by flight time uncertainties, which cannot be predicted by current Flight Planning Systems (FPS). In this paper, we develop a novel spatial weighted recurrent neural network model to provide better flight time predictions by capturing air traffic information at a national scale based on multiple data sources, including Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast (ADS-B), Meteorological Aerodrome Reports (METAR), and airline records. In this model, a spatial weighted layer is designed to extract spatial dependences among network delay states (i.e. average flight delay at each airport and average flight delay of each Origin-Destination (OD) pair for a specific time interval). Then, a new training procedure associated with the spatial weighted layer is introduced to extract OD-specific spatial weights and then integrate into one model for a nationwide air traffic network. Long short-term memory (LSTM) networks are used after the spatial weighted layer to extract the temporal behavior patterns of network delay states. Finally, features from delays, weather, and flight schedules are fed into a fully connected neural network to predict the flight time of a particular flight. The proposed model was evaluated using one year of historical data from an airline's real operations. Results show that our model can provide a more accurate flight time predictions than baseline methods, especially for flights with extreme delays. We also show that, with the improved flight time prediction, fuel loading can be optimized and resulting reduced fuel consumption by 0.016%–1.915% without increasing the fuel depletion risk.

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Safety is a top priority for civil aviation. Data mining in digital Flight Data Recorder (FDR) or Quick Access Recorder (QAR) data, commonly referred to as black box data on aircraft, has gained interest for proactive safety management. New anomaly detection methods, primarily clustering methods, have been developed to monitor pilot operations and detect any risks from such flight data. However, all existing anomaly detection methods are offline learning — the models are trained once using historical data and used for all future predictions. In practice, new flight data are accumulated continuously and analyzed every month at airlines. Clustering such dynamically growing data is challenging for an offline method because it is memory and time intensive to re-train the model every time new data come in. If the model is not re-trained, false alarms or missed detections may increase since the model cannot reflect changes in data patterns. To address this problem, we propose a novel incremental anomaly detection method based on Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) to identify common patterns and detect outliers in flight operations from digital flight data. It is a probabilistic clustering model of flight operations that can incrementally update its clusters based on new data rather than to re-cluster all data from scratch. It trains an initial GMM model based on historical offline data. Then, it continuously adapts to new incoming data points via an expectation–maximization (EM) algorithm. To track changes in flight operation patterns, only model parameters need to be saved, not the raw flight data. The proposed method was tested on three sets of simulation data and two sets of real-world flight data. Compared with the traditional offline GMM method, the proposed method can generate similar clustering results with significantly reduced processing time (57 %–99 % time reduction in testing sets) and memory usage (91 %–95 % memory usage reduction in testing sets). Preliminary results indicate that the incremental learning scheme is effective in dealing with dynamically growing data in flight data analytics.

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Accurately predicting the lifetime of lithium-ion batteries in early cycles is crucial for ensuring the safety and reliability, and accelerating the battery development cycle. However, most of existing studies presented poor prediction results for early prediction, due to the nonlinear battery capacity fade with negligible variation in early cycles. In this paper, to achieve an accurate early-cycle prediction of battery lifetime, a comprehensive machine learning (ML) based framework containing three modules, the feature extraction, feature selection, and machine learning based prediction, is proposed. First, by analysing the evolution pattern of various informative parameters, forty-two features are manually crafted based on the first-100-cycle charge-discharge raw data. Second, to manage feature irrelevancy and redundancy, four typical feature selection methods are adopted to generate an optimal lower-dimensional feature subset. Finally, the selected features are fed into six representative ML models to effectively predict the battery lifetime. Numerical experiments and paired t-test are conducted to statistically evaluate the performance of the proposed framework. Results show that the wrapper-based feature selection method outperforms other methods, and significantly improves the prediction performance of subsequent ML models. Both before and after wrapper feature selection, the elastic net, Gaussian process regression, and support vector machine present better performance than other complex ML prediction models. The support vector machine model combined with wrapper feature selection statistically presents the best result for battery lifetime prediction, with a root-of-mean-square-error of 115 cycles, and a R² of 0.90. Finally, when compared with an existing work, the root-of-mean-square-error is substantially decreased from 173 to 115 cycles, by using the proposed framework.

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En-route congestion causes delays in air traffic networks and will become more prominent as air traffic demand will continue to increase yet airspace volume cannot grow. However, most existing studies on flight delay modeling do not consider en-route congestion explicitly. In this study, we propose a new flight delay model, Multi-layer Air Traffic Network Delay (MATND) model, to capture the impact of en-route congestion on flight delays over an air traffic network. This model is developed by a data-driven approach, taking aircraft tracking data and flight schedules as inputs to characterize a national air traffic network, as well as a system-level model approach, modeling the delay process based on queueing theory. The two approaches combined make the network delay model a close representation of reality and easy-to-implement for what-if scenario analysis. The proposed MATND model includes 1) a data-driven method to learn a network composed of airports, en-route congestion points, and air corridors from aircraft tracking data, 2) a stochastic and dynamic queuing network model to calculate flight delays and track their propagation at both airports and in en-route congestion areas, in which the delays are computed via a space–time decomposition method. Using one month of historical aircraft tracking data over China's air traffic network, MATND is tested and shows to give an accurate quantification of delays of the national air traffic network. “What-if” scenario analyses are conducted to demonstrate how the proposed model can be used for the evaluation of air traffic network improvement strategies, where the manipulation of reality at such a scale is impossible. Results show that MATND is computationally efficient, well suited for evaluating the impact of policy alternatives on system-wide delay at a macroscopic level.

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A novel data-driven framework to monitor the health status of high-speed rail suspension system by measuring train vibrations is proposed herein. Unlike existing methods, this framework does not rely on sophisticated dynamic models or high-fidelity simulations; it combines the power of data and domain knowledge to generate a model that can be trained quickly and adapted easily to different rail systems. In addition, the framework includes a module to generate a training dataset, tackling a typical challenge in real-world system monitoring, namely, the lack of labeled data due to practical limits. Based on the multi-output support vector regression (MSVR), the proposed framework can monitor the stiffness and damping coefficients of the suspension system using vibration signals measured on trains in real time. The framework comprises three modules. First, a simple suspension system dynamics model is built to generate a training dataset. Furthermore, key features are extracted from frequency response curves to reflect the impact of spring and damper degradation. Subsequently, a supervised learning model based on the MSVR is built to predict the stiffness and damping coefficients of suspension systems from features extracted in the second module. Once the model is built, real-time monitoring can be achieved by feeding the vibration signals as they are collected during operations. The proposed framework was evaluated on simulation data for its accuracy and tested on real-world operational data for its practicability.

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