Hybrid computational solvers that integrate Eulerian and Lagrangian methods are emerging as powerful tools in computational fluid dynamics, particularly for external aerodynamics. These solvers rely on the strengths of both approaches: Eulerian methods efficiently handle boundary layers, while Lagrangian methods excel in reducing numerical diffusion in flow convection. Building on our prior development of a two-dimensional hybrid solver that combines OpenFOAM with vortex particle method, this paper extends its application to the complex phenomena of airfoil stall at low Reynolds numbers. Specifically, we examine both static and dynamic stall conditions of a National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) airfoil series 0012 (NACA0012) across a wide range of attack angles and oscillation frequencies, comparing our results with established data. The findings demonstrate the accuracy of hybrid Eulerian–Lagrangian solvers in replicating known stall behaviors, underscoring their potential for advanced aerodynamic studies. This work not only confirms the capability of hybrid solvers in accurately modeling challenging flows but also paves the way for their increased involvement in the field of external aerodynamics.@en

To investigate the effect of force distributions of each turbine component on the power performance of the Darrieus–Savonius combined vertical axis wind turbine (hybrid VAWT), the hybrid VAWT is modeled as idealized turbine under various force distributions. The goal of idealization is to simplify the intricate interactions between the Savonius and Darrieus components. The simulation actuator surfaces with uniform force distributions lead to a cost-effective way to identify the optimal force distribution of each turbine component. The numerical model was validated against momentum theory. The results demonstrated that the numerical and theoretical results yield similar predictions in the low-thrust cases but show differences in the high-thrust cases. The maximum power coefficient (Formula presented.) of an idealized hybrid VAWT with given thrust coefficient (Formula presented.) is lower than that of a single actuator. This is a consequence of the nonoptimal loading on the actuator. The results indicate that an idealized hybrid VAWT does not show a significant power increase compared with an optimal single Darrieus rotor. Therefore, the presence of a Savonius rotor inside a Darrieus rotor leads to a lower power output in any circumstance. The hybrid configuration is primarily advantageous for the start-up performance of the combined rotor, which is not explored in this study.

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The past few decades have witnessed a growing popularity in Eulerian–Lagrangian solvers due to their significant potential for simulating aerodynamic flows, particularly in cases involving strong body–vortex interactions. In this hybrid approach, the two component solvers are mutually coupled in a two-way fashion. Initially, the Lagrangian solver can supply boundary conditions to the Eulerian solver, while the Eulerian solver functions as a corrector for the Lagrangian solution in regions where the latter cannot achieve high accuracy. To utilize such tools effectively, it is vital for them to be capable of handling dynamic mesh movements. This study builds upon the previous research conducted by our team and extends the capabilities of the hybrid solver to handle dynamic meshes. While OpenFOAM, the Eulerian component of this hybrid code, incorporates built-in dynamic mesh properties, certain modifications are necessary to ensure its compatibility with the Lagrangian solver. More specifically, the evolution algorithm of the pimpleFOAM solver needs to be divided into two discrete steps: first, updating the mesh, and later, evolving the solution. This division enables a proper coupling between pimpleFOAM and the Lagrangian solver as an intermediate step. Therefore, the primary objective of this specific paper is to adapt the OpenFOAM solver to meet the demands of the hybrid solver and subsequently validate that the hybrid solver can effectively address dynamic mesh challenges using this approach. This approach introduces a pioneering method for conducting dynamic mesh simulations within the OpenFOAM framework, showcasing its potential for broader applications. To validate the approach, various test cases involving dynamic mesh movements are employed. Specifically, all these cases employ the Lamb–Oseen diffusing vortex, but each case incorporates different types of mesh movements, including translational, rotational, oscillational, and combinations thereof. The results from these cases demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed OpenFOAM algorithm, with the maximum relative errors —when compared to the analytical solution across all presented cases—capped at (Formula presented.) for the worst-case scenario. This affirms the algorithm’s capability to successfully handle dynamic mesh simulations with the proposed solver.

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Hybrid Eulerian–Lagrangian solvers have gained increasing attention in the field of external aerodynamics, particularly when dealing with strong body–vortex interactions. This approach effectively combines the strengths of the Eulerian component, which accurately resolves boundary layer phenomena, and the Lagrangian component, which efficiently evolves the wake downstream. This study builds on our team's previous work by enhancing the capabilities of a two-dimensional hybrid Eulerian–Lagrangian solver. We aim to upgrade our solver which was initially designed for static cases, to now also simulate cases involving moving objects. To ensure the reliability and applicability of a new solver, it is essential to validate its performance in complex cases. Here, the solver is validated across the case of a traveling cylinder and the case of a rotating cylinder in two different rotational speeds at low Reynolds numbers. In the realm of Eulerian solvers, such as OpenFOAM (utilized for the Eulerian component of this hybrid approach), traditional techniques include the use of morphing meshes, overset meshes, and Arbitrary Mesh Interfaces (AMI) to model body motion. The proposed methodology involves extending the Eulerian mesh up to a short distance from the solid boundary and moving it entirely as a solid entity. Then the Lagrangian solver is responsible for calculating the updated boundary conditions, thereby completing the hybrid solver's functionality. This approach is very similar to the overset mesh technique. However, unlike the traditional method where an Eulerian mesh moves on top of a static one, our method involves the motion of an Eulerian mesh over a Lagrangian grid. We compared the results from our hybrid solver with those from a purely Eulerian solver, specifically OpenFOAM. The comparison demonstrates that our solver can replicate OpenFOAM's results with high accuracy. Another interesting point highlighted in this study is the presence of high-frequency oscillations in the body forces in hybrid solvers that incorporate the redistribution of Lagrangian particles and do not utilize surface elements such as vortex panels, specifically when dealing with dynamic mesh simulations. When the Eulerian mesh travels on top of the Lagrangian grid of particles, the positions of the particles with respect to the Eulerian mesh continuously change. This results in a constant shift of particles near the solid body, where the highest vorticity is observed. Particles that are close to the solid boundary at one time step may find themselves inside the boundary at the next time step, leading to their removal. This pattern continuously changes during the simulation, causing fluctuations in the boundary conditions of the Eulerian solver and manifesting as oscillations in the forces acting on the body. It is shown that this issue can be alleviated either by increasing the spatial resolution of the Lagrangian solver or by synchronizing the movement of the Lagrangian grid with the motion of the Eulerian mesh. The results of the study make the solver trustworthy and pave the way for more demanding external aerodynamic simulations.

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The field of external aerodynamics encompasses various engineering disciplines with a significant impact on wind energy technology. Aerodynamic investigations provide insights not only into the characteristics of individual blades or standalone wind turbines but also into entire wind farms. As advancements in wind turbine design continue, understanding the interactions between turbines in close proximity becomes crucial, presenting a multi-body problem. Researchers require efficient and accurate tools to comprehensively study such dynamics. This paper presents a hybrid Eulerian-Lagrangian solver designed to leverage the strengths of Eulerian solvers in resolving boundary layers and Lagrangian solvers in convecting wakes downstream without introducing significant numerical diffusion. The solver adeptly handles multi-body simulations, allowing the construction of independent Eulerian meshes that communicate seamlessly through Lagrangian particles. In this way, the computational study of multibody problems does not require very large and dense meshes. Validation in single-body cases has already been conducted, with this paper demonstrating the solver's application to a pair of cylinders in different configurations. A comparative performance analysis is carried out against pure Eulerian solvers. The results highlight that the hybrid solver efficiently reproduces the accuracy of the Eulerian solver, demonstrating its effectiveness in handling complex aerodynamic simulations.@en

This study investigates the near-wake aerodynamics of actuator disks (multirotor devices) paired with lift-generating devices (rotor-sized wings, dubbed ABL-control devices). These rotor-sized wings generate vortical structures that enhance the vertical momentum flux from above the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) into the wind farm, aiding wake recovery. Using three-dimensional actuator surface models based on Momentum theory, the study employs steady-state Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes computations in OpenFOAM to address the current proof-of-concept model. The numerical results of this paper are validated with a comparison against the experimental results of a scaled multirotor device in a wind tunnel. The performance of the ABL-controlling devices is evaluated through the wind farm's total pressure and vertical momentum flux. Results indicate that ABL-control significantly accelerates wake recovery, with designs featuring two or four ABL-control devices achieving 95% total pressure recovery at x/D ≈ 5, one order of magnitude shorter than the baseline setup without ABL-control.

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The vibration of fuel rods induced by the fast flowing coolant is a known challenge to nuclear power plant designers and operators. If not dealt with adequately, the vibrations could lead to undesirable wear and tear of the cladding, which, in turn, could result in fuel rod failures and costly unplanned outages of the power plant. Hence, knowledge of these vibrations is important in the design phase. Due to the increase in computational power, numerical tools are increasingly often used to assess flow-induced vibrations. As these vibrations are a result of the local axial turbulent flow, scale-resolving methods are typically required for accurate predictions. Such methods, though, are usually computationally too expensive to use for industrial nuclear applications. Medium resolution turbulence models such as URANS generally cannot be used as they only resolve the average flow conditions and not turbulent fluctuations. To overcome this limitation of the URANS models, an Anisotropic Pressure Fluctuation Model (AniPFM) has been developed, which is an improved version of the earlier developed isotropic version. Compared to the isotropic model the generated synthetic turbulence is now anisotropic and is correlated in time based on the transport and decorrelation of turbulence. The current paper gives an overview of the new AniPFM, and presents results for a first fluid–structure interaction test case, demonstrating it can indeed induce and sustain vibrations of a rod, and that results are improved compared to the old model.

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In the field of computational aerodynamics, it is vital to develop tools that can accurately, but also efficiently, simulate the flow around bluff objects and calculate the aerodynamic forces acting on them. When strong body–vortex interactions take place, the simulations become more demanding, since complex phenomena appear. To address this issue, hybrid Eulerian–Lagrangian solvers have been developed and are increasingly used in the field. In this paper, a Vortex Particle Method (VPM) is coupled with the OpenFOAM software. The Eulerian solver (OpenFOAM) resolves the regions close to the solid boundaries, while the vortex particles evolve the wake downstream, significantly reducing artificial diffusion. The coupling strategy and the validation results of a hybrid code based on the domain decomposition technique are presented. This work is the first to couple OpenFOAM with a Lagrangian solver in the framework of a hybrid solver. Our objective is twofold: to verify the capability of OpenFOAM to run with a VPM and to validate the hybrid solver using benchmark cases. We demonstrate the validation of the solver on the Lamb–Oseen vortex case, the dipole case in the unbounded domain, and the flow around a cylinder at Re = 550. Our results show that coupling OpenFOAM with a VPM can be achieved without complications and efficiently reproduces the results of pure Eulerian simulations.@en

In nuclear fuel rod bundles, turbulence-induced pressure fluctuations caused by an axial flow can create small but significant vibrations in the fuel rods, which in turn can cause structural effects such as material fatigue and fretting wear. Fluid-structure interaction simulations can be used to model these vibrations, but for affordable simulations based on the URANS approach, a model for the pressure fluctuations must be utilised. Driven by the goal to improve the current state-of-the-art pressure fluctuation model, AniPFM (Anisotropic Pressure Fluctuation Model) was developed. AniPFM can model velocity fluctuations based on anisotropic Reynolds stress tensors, with temporal correlation through the convection and decorrelation of turbulence. From these velocity fluctuations and the mean flow properties, the pressure fluctuations are calculated. The model was applied to several test cases and shows promising results in terms of reproducing qualitatively similar flow structures, as well as predicting the root-mean-squared pressure fluctuations. While further validation is being performed, the AniPFM has already demonstrated its potential for affordable simulations of turbulence-induced vibrations in industrial nuclear applications.

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To investigate power losses of a Darrieus-Savonius combined vertical axis wind turbine (hybrid VAWT) associated with the interaction between blades and wake, it is crucial to understand the flow phenomena around the turbine. This study presents a two-dimensional numerical analysis of vortex dynamics for a hybrid VAWT. The integration of a Savonius rotor in the hybrid VAWT improves self-starting capability but introduces vortices that cause transient load fluctuations on the Darrieus blades. This study attempts to characterize the flow features around the hybrid VAWT and correlate them with the Darrieus blade force variation in one revolution. Results demonstrate the capability of numerical modeling in handling a wide range of operational conditions: the relevant position of Savonius and Darrieus blades (attachment angle γ = 0 ° − 90 ° ) and Savonius' tip speed ratio λ_S (0.2-0.8, varied Savonius' rotational speed). The torque increase in the Darrieus blade in hybrid VAWT (compared to a single Darrieus rotor) due to the appearance of the vortex shedding from the advanced Savonius blade is independent of the attachment angle and tip speed ratio. Apart from start-up and power performances of the hybrid VAWT, the most rapid force fluctuation is identified when the Darrieus blade interacts with Savonius' wake at γ = 0 ° and λ S = 0.8 , which is considered undesirable. Furthermore, attachment angles of 60 ° and 90 ° exhibit better power coefficients compared to those of 0 ° and 30 ° for the hybrid VAWT. This study contributes to a comprehensive understanding of flow dynamics in hybrid VAWTs, revealing the correlation between torque variation and vortex development.

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This study investigates the implementation of the vortex particle method (VPM) with the goal of efficiently and accurately estimating the power performances and flow characteristics for a Savonius rotor. The accuracy and efficiency of simulation methods are critical for the reliable design of Savonius rotors. Among various approaches, VPM is chosen because it can be flexibly incorporated with self-correction techniques, and the distribution of bound vortex particles can effectively represent complex geometries. In this work, a double-trailing-edge-wake-modeling vortex particle method (DTVPM) is presented to extend the working range of VPM for dealing with large rotating amplitudes and high tip speed ratios (TSRs). DTVPM addresses asymmetrical torque predictions for a Savonius rotor without gap width. However, DTVPM performs poorly at high TSRs due to the absence of viscous effects near the surface. To capture complex wake structures, such as reverse flow structures, the viscous correction for tip vortices is suggested. The current research focuses on the implementation and validation of DTVPM for predicting torque coefficients and wake patterns, as well as comparisons to OpenFOAM results. Two-dimensional and incompressible flow is estimated at (Formula presented.) = 0.2–1.2. For the studied cases, a maximum power coefficient is obtained at (Formula presented.), consistent with published experimental data. In addition, the process of trailing-edge vortices generation and detachment is captured by DTVPM. The comparison results between OpenFOAM and DTVPM show that DTVPM allows to efficiently simulate a Savonius rotor without any empirical parameters. DTVPM will help to improve existing engineering models for wind energy fields.

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Flapping wings display complex flows which can be used to generate large lift forces. Flexibility in wings is widely used by natural flyers to increase the aerodynamic performance. The influence of wing flexibility on the flow can be computed using numerical analysis with Fluid Structure Interaction (FSI). The influence of inertial, elastic and aerodynamic forces is quantified using a 2D wing. A sinusoidal flapping motion is imposed on the leading edge of the vertical wing. The inertial force on the wing dominates for high mass ratios and the wing deflection is rather independent of the flow. For a low mass ratio, the wing deformation scales with the increasing elasticity. The maximum lift and lowest drag were found for the wing with large flexibility and low mass so the passive deformation by aerodynamic forces creates a favourable shape for lift production. Flexible translating and revolving wings at an angle of attack of 45 degrees show that chordwise flexibility decreases both lift and drag, however the lift over drag ratio is increased. The flow around both wings forms a coherent structure with a Root Vortex (RV), Tip Vortex (TV), Leading Edge Vortex (LEV) and Trailing Edge Vortex (TEV). The LEV on the revolving wing is stable for approximately up to half the span because vorticity is transported outward in the vortex core. The flowfield and LEV breakdown are consistent with experimental data of the same wing. The translating wing builds up circulation but the LEV detaches quickly near the centre of the wing. Chordwise bending reduces the angle of attack which decreases the distance to the core of the shed LEVs.@en

Nuclear reactor designs such as PWR and BWR are susceptible to vibrations induced on the nuclear fuel rods due to fast flowing coolants around the rods. The non-linear behaviour of flexible components have always been a challenge to compute especially when dealing with strongly coupled fluid–structure interaction cases as found in the reactors. Simulating such a behaviour involves a two-way coupling of a well resolved turbulent flow Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) solver to a Computational Solid Mechanics (CSM) solver. The use of a high fidelity CFD solver to resolve turbulent flows in an FSI (Fluid-Structure Interaction) simulation is computationally expensive ergo is not practical in for industrial purposes. To address this issue, a different approach is discussed in this article to simulate turbulence induced vibrations through the use of U-RANS models. The method is based on computing the modeled turbulent pressure and velocity fluctuations from values obtained by solving U-RANS (Unsteady-Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes) equations. The calculated turbulent fluctuating field is combined with mean values to compute an instantaneous turbulent pressure field to apply an external pressure and shear force on the structure and vice-verse until convergence is achieved. This method can be used to accurately estimate the behaviour of a flexible structure in a turbulent flow. The article provides a detailed explanation of the model followed by validation with three numerical test cases. The first case involves a CFD simulation where results from the pressure fluctuation model (PFM) is compared to a benchmark DNS (Direct Numerical Simulation) of a turbulent channel flow with friction Reynolds number, Re_τ=640. Later the PFM is applied to a 2-dimensional strongly-coupled FSI simulation with a flexible steel flap in turbulent water flow to study the feasibility and stability of PFM applied to an FSI problem. Finally, the PFM is used to simulate an experimental case of a brass rod excited by turbulent water performed by Chen and Wambsganns (1972). The results show that the PFM is capable of simulating turbulence induced vibration (TIV) with low-fidelity U-RANS models.

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Despite advances in turbulence modelling, the Smagorinsky model remains a popular choice for large eddy simulation (LES) due to its simplicity and ease of use. The dissipation in turbulence energy that the model introduces, is proportional to the Smagorinsky constant, of which many different values have been proposed. These values have been derived for certain simulated test-cases while using a specific set of numerical schemes, to obtain the correct dissipation in energy simply because an incorrect value of the Smagorinsky constant would lead to an incorrect dissipation. However, it is important to bear in mind that numerical codes may suffer from numerical or artificial dissipation, which occurs spuriously through a combination of spatio-temporal and iterative errors. The latter can be controlled through more iterations, the former however, depends on the grid resolution and the time step. Recent research suggests that a complete energy-conserving (EC) spatio-temporal discretisation guarantees zero numerical dissipation for any grid resolution and time step. Therefore, using an EC scheme would ensure that dissipation occurs primarily through the Smagorinsky model (and errors in its implementation) than through the discretisation of the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations. To evaluate the efficacy of these schemes for engineering applications, the article first discusses the use of an EC temporal discretisation as regards to accuracy and computational effort, to ascertain whether EC time advancement is advantageous or not. It was noticed that a simple non-EC explicit method with a smaller time step not only reduces the numerical dissipation to an acceptable level but is computationally cheaper than an implicit-EC scheme for wide range of time steps. Secondly, in terms of spatial discretisation on uniform grids (popular in LES), a simple central-difference scheme is as accurate as an EC spatial discretisation. Finally, following the removal of numerical dissipation with any of the methods mentioned above, one is able to choose a Smagorinsky constant that is nearly independent of the grid resolution (within realistic bounds, for OpenFOAM and an in-house code). This article provides impetus to the efficient use of the Smagorinsky model for LES in fields such as wind farm aerodynamics and atmospheric simulations, instead of more comprehensive and computationally demanding turbulence models.@en

To analyze the downstream effects of bypass transition strips on a laminar incoming flow, a direct numerical simulation of the fully transient, explicit and compressible Lattice Boltzmann equations is performed. Near wake analysis of a staggered grid of cubic blocks as transition device is compared with a more conventional zigzag strip, to ensure transition to a fully developed conical boundary layer. The staggered grid of blocks is more efficient in stopping the flow and creating large, coherent, flow structures of the size of the blocks, which results in a stronger transition. However, the downstream merging of spanwise created structures is relatively long resulting in higher correlated boundary layers. If the spanwise variation of the zigzag strip is small, the streamwise vortices created merge quicker, resulting in an earlier uncorrelated boundary layer. The self-noise created by zigzag strip is also significantly less than the noise from the staggered grid of blocks and becomes only dominant at high frequency compared to the predicted trailing edge noise.@en

This paper aims to provide an explanation for the overprediction of aerodynamic loads by CFD compared to experiments for the MEXICO wind turbine rotor and improve the CFD prediction by considering laminar-turbulent transition modeling. Large deviations between CFD results and experimental measurements are observed in terms of sectional normal and tangential forces at the blade tip (r/R=0.82 and 0.92) of the MEXICO rotor operating in axial condition at the design tip speed ratio λ=6.7. The first part of this study identifies the effects of ZigZag tape, which is used in the experiment to trigger boundary layer transition, by analyzing the available experimental data of a single, non-rotating MEXICO rotor blade. The analysis indicates that ZigZag tape has a significant impact on sectional aerodynamic tip loads: it alters the boundary layer thickness and additionally reduces the effective airfoil camber besides the expected tripping. These additional effects most likely also occur in the rotating MEXICO experiment, reducing the sectional loads and hence lead to an overprediction by CFD. To eliminate the ZigZag tape interference, experimental data with an untripped blade is preferred to be used as validation case. In the second part of this study, a transitional flow simulation for the MEXICO rotor is performed by using RANS-based transition model k−kL−ω within OpenFOAM-2.1.1. The numerical results are compared against experimental data obtained from the untripped, new MEXICO experiments. The comparison gives that transitional simulation present a very good tip loads prediction for the untripped blade. The measured data also confirms that the ZigZag tape indeed has a significant influence on the blade tip loads in rotating conditions. The transition onset over 3D MEXICO blade is visualized and transition locations are identified. The results shown in the present study can explain the causes of the large differences between CFD and experiment observed in the MEXICO blind comparisons.@en

This paper presents a numerical investigation of transitional flow on the wind turbine airfoil DU91-W2-250 with chord-based Reynolds number Re_c = 1.0 × 10⁶. The Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes based transition model using laminar kinetic energy concept, namely the k − k_L − ω model, is employed to resolve the boundary layer transition. Some ambiguities for this model are discussed and it is further implemented into OpenFOAM-2.1.1. The k − k_L − ω model is first validated through the chosen wind turbine airfoil at the angle of attack (AoA) of 6.24° against wind tunnel measurement, where lift and drag coefficients, surface pressure distribution and transition location are compared. In order to reveal the transitional flow on the airfoil, the mean boundary layer profiles in three zones, namely the laminar, transitional and fully turbulent regimes, are investigated. Observation of flow at the transition location identifies the laminar separation bubble. The AoA effect on boundary layer transition over wind turbine airfoil is also studied. Increasing the AoA from −3° to 10°, the laminar separation bubble moves upstream and reduces in size, which is in close agreement with wind tunnel measurement.

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An optimization approach is presented that can be used to find the optimal source term distribution in order to represent a high-fidelity vortex-generator (VG) induced flow field on a coarse mesh. The ap- proach employs the continuous adjoint of the problem, from which an exact sensitivity is calculated and used in combination with a trust-region method to find the source term which minimizes the deviation with respect to the reference velocity field. The algorithm is applied to an incompressible flow over a rectangular VG and VG pair on a flat plate and compared to results obtained with the jBAY-model and a body-fitted mesh simulation. The results indicate that a highly accurate flow, yielding only minimal errors with respect to the shape factor, circulation and vortex core, can be obtained on coarse meshes when adding a source term to only a limited number of cells. This approach therefore demonstrates the potential of source-term models to include the effects of VGs in computations of large-scale geometries. It also allows quantification of the achievable accuracy on a particular mesh and the calculation of the source term which is optimal for a specific situation. Furthermore, the optimization approach can be used to diagnose the deficiencies of an existing source-term VG model, in this work the jBAY model.@en

This paper presents the experimental and numerical study on MEXICO wind turbine blades. Previous work by other researchers shows that large deviations exist in the loads comparison between numerical predictions and experimental data for the rotating MEXICO wind turbine. To reduce complexities and uncertainties, a non-rotating experimental campaign has been carried out on MEXICO blades Delft University of Technology. In this new measurement, quasi-2D aerodynamic characteristics of MEXICO blades on three spanwise sections are measured at different inflow velocities and angles of attack. Additionally, RANS simulations are performed with OpenFOAM-2.1.1 to compare numerical results against measured data. The comparison and analysis of aerodynamic loads on the blade, where three different airfoil families and geometrical transition regions are used, show that for attached flow condition, RANS computation predicts excellent pressure distribution on the NACA airfoil section (r=R D 0.92) and good agreement is observed on the DU (r=R D 0.35) and RISØ (r=R D 0.60) airfoil sections. Unexpected aerodynamic characteristics are observed at the intermediate transition regions connecting the RISØ and DU airfoils, where sudden lift force drop is found at the radial position r=R D 0.55. Through numerical flow visualization, large-scale vortical structures are observed on the suction side of the blade near the mid-span. Moreover, counter-rotating vortices are generated behind the blade at locations where unexpected loads occurs. Consequently, the RISØ airfoil could not give expected 2D aerodynamic characteristics because of upwash/downwash effects induced by these counter-rotating vortices, which make 3D effects play an important role in numerical modeling when calculating the aerodynamic loads for MEXICO rotor.@en

A PhD project is being carried out on the topic of far-wake aerodynamics of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs) in yawed conditions, which has a large relevance for wind farm design and optimization. Characteristic for a turbine in yaw are the inherent unsteady and non-uniform rotor loading, and the typical wake deflection and strong three-dimensional deformation effects under influence of self-induction (see figure 1). Investigation of HAWTs in yaw is important, as the larce-scale eddies of the turbulent atmosphere dictate that a wind turbine is in practise always operating in unsteady yaw, while the resulting wake effects are already significant for small yaw angles. Despite this relevance, research into the far-wake of yawed wind turbines has been very limited and the symmetry assumptions on which common wake engineering models are based conflict with the physics of the skewed wake of a yawed turbine. Nevertheless, there is an increasing interest into this topic, as it is recognized that the effect of wake deflection can be exploited as a way to optimize the overall wind farm power production through active yaw control. For this purpose, simple two-dimensional models are applied for approximating the wake deflection, but which are unable to capture the typical three-dimensional deformation effects. In summary, there is a large gap of fundamental knowledge on wake physics in yawed conditions, and what the relevance of these phenomena is on the development and issues like the re-energization process of the far-wake. To bridge this gap, the PhD project aims at improving our understanding of the wake physics of HAWTs in yaw and to draft guidelines for reduced-order models that can be applied for wind farm design and optimization. In support of this aim, the objective is to analyze the different physical “modes” that play a role in the yawed wake, through a numerial and experimental investigation of the skewed wakes aft of HAWTs and actuator discs. The results from these investigations are collected (along with results from third parties) into a high-fidelity benchmark database for model validation purposes and to be able to derive the reduced-order models. For the current conference, results will be presented of both two- and three-dimensional free-wake vortex simulations of an actuator disc in yaw. The focus is put on the crescent or kidney shaped convective wake deformation (figure 1), which is naturally not present in a two-dimensional simulation. The magnitude of this phenomenon is investigated as function of the yaw angle and thrust coefficient, and the effect on global wake parameters is assessed such as the wake deflection and velocity profile. The outcomes of this investigation are relevant for assessing the validity of two-dimensional assumptions made in current yaw models regarding the wake deflection, definition of the wake center and width, and the wake profile. @en