Distributed quantum computers hold great promise in the realization of scalable and fault-tolerant quantum computers. They contain multiple nodes with small quantum devices that can generate inter-node entanglement. Next to realizing distributed architectures on a single chip, these systems can be extended to large-scale quantum networks. Connecting the nodes based on the topology of a quantum error-correction code forms an intuitive path toward fault tolerance.

Performing error-detection measurements in distributed error-correction codes requires the generation and consumption of entangled states. We focus on systems that are capable of generating remote two-qubit entanglement between pairs of connected nodes—i.e., Bell pairs. Entangled states of higher weight—the so-called Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ) states—can be generated by fusing Bell pairs. On top of this, the quality of the generated entangled states can be increased with entanglement distillation. We implement dynamic programming to generate high-quality GHZ states by fusing and distilling Bell pairs.

The dynamic program allows us to optimize the quality of error-detection measurements for a specific distributed error-correction code: the (toric) surface code. We numerically evaluate the performance of this code with noise models based on experimental characterization of diamond color center hardware, including the typical behavior of memory decoherence in these devices. This leads to the identification of a threshold in the ratio between entanglement generation and the decoherence rates.

For a two-dimensional error-correction code like the surface code, performing error-detection over multiple time steps can be reinterpreted as measuring the qubits of a three-dimensional cluster state. This equivalence enables considering more general three-dimensional cluster states as fault-tolerant channels that transform the logical qubits of the underlying error-correction code. We use this idea to investigate distributed logical memory channels for general types of circuit-level and entanglement noise.

Our results show that efficient generation of high-quality entanglement and strategic design of error-correction channels are important aspects for developing noise-resilient distributed quantum computers. @en

Noisy hardware forms one of the main hurdles to the realization of a near-term quantum internet. Distillation protocols allows one to overcome this noise at the cost of an increased overhead. We consider here an experimentally relevant class of distillation protocols, which distill <italic>n</italic> to <italic>k</italic> end-to-end entangled pairs using bilocal Clifford operations, a single round of communication and a possible final local operation depending on the observed measurement outcomes. In the case of permutationally invariant depolarizing noise on the input states, we find a correspondence between these distillation protocols and graph codes. We leverage this correspondence to find provably optimal distillation protocols in this class for several tasks important for the quantum internet. This correspondence allows us to investigate use cases for so-called non-trivial measurement syndromes. Furthermore, we detail a recipe to construct the circuit used for the distillation protocol given a graph code. We use this to find circuits of short depth and small number of two-qubit gates. Additionally, we develop a black-box circuit optimization algorithm, and find that both approaches yield comparable circuits. Finally, we investigate the teleportation of encoded states and find protocols which jointly improve the rate and fidelities with respect to prior art.

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In the search for scalable, fault-tolerant quantum computing, distributed quantum computers are promising candidates. These systems can be realized in large-scale quantum networks or condensed onto a single chip with closely situated nodes. We present a framework for numerical simulations of a memory channel using the distributed toric surface code, where each data qubit of the code is part of a separate node, and the error-detection performance depends on the quality of four-qubit Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ) states generated between the nodes. We quantitatively investigate the effect of memory decoherence and evaluate the advantage of GHZ creation protocols tailored to the level of decoherence. We do this by applying our framework for the particular case of color centers in diamond, employing models developed from experimental characterization of nitrogen-vacancy centers. For diamond color centers, coherence times during entanglement generation are orders of magnitude lower than coherence times of idling qubits. These coherence times represent a limiting factor for applications, but previous surface code simulations did not treat them as such. Introducing limiting coherence times as a prominent noise factor makes it imperative to integrate realistic operation times into simulations and incorporate strategies for operation scheduling. Our model predicts error probability thresholds for gate and measurement reduced by at least a factor of three compared to prior work with more idealized noise models. We also find a threshold of 4 × 10 2 in the ratio between the entanglement generation and the decoherence rates, setting a benchmark for experimental progress.

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In this paper, we introduce a novel heuristic approach designed to optimize the performance of Greenberger-Horne- Zeilinger (GHZ) creation and distillation protocols under decoherence. Our methodology converts these protocols into a practical set of instructions, demonstrating, through simulations, the production of higher-quality GHZ states than previously known protocols. This advancement contributes to the field of distributed quantum computing by addressing the need for high-quality entanglement required for operations between different quantum computers.

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Quantum networks can enable quantum communication and modular quantum computation. A powerful approach is to use multi-qubit nodes that provide quantum memory and computational power. Nuclear spins associated with defects in diamond are promising qubits for this role. However, dephasing during optical entanglement distribution hinders scaling to larger systems. Here, we show that a ¹³C-spin quantum memory in isotopically engineered diamond is robust to the optical link operation of a nitrogen-vacancy centre. The memory lifetime is improved by two orders-of-magnitude upon the state-of-the-art, surpassing reported times for entanglement distribution. Additionally, we demonstrate that the nuclear-spin state can survive ionisation and recapture of the nitrogen-vacancy electron. Finally, we use simulations to show that combining this memory with previously demonstrated entanglement links and gates can enable key network primitives, such as deterministic non-local two-qubit gates, paving the way for test-bed quantum networks capable of investigating complex algorithms and error correction.

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Entanglement distillation is an essential building block in quantum communication protocols. Here, we study the class of near-term implementable distillation protocols that use bilocal Clifford operations followed by a single round of communication. We introduce tools to enumerate and optimise over all protocols for up to n = 5 (not necessarily equal) Bell-diagonal states using a commodity desktop computer. Furthermore, by exploiting the symmetries of the input states, we find all protocols for up to n = 8 copies of a Werner state. For the latter case, we present circuits that achieve the highest fidelity with perfect operations and no decoherence. These circuits have modest depth and number of two-qubit gates. Our results are based on a correspondence between distillation protocols and double cosets of the symplectic group, and improve on previously known protocols.

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The distribution of high-quality Greenberger–Horne–Zeilinger (GHZ) states is at the heart of many quantum communication tasks, ranging from extending the baseline of telescopes to secret sharing. They also play an important role in error-correction architectures for distributed quantum computation, where Bell pairs can be leveraged to create an entangled network of quantum computers. We investigate the creation and distillation of GHZ states out of nonperfect Bell pairs over quantum networks. In particular, we introduce a heuristic dynamic programming algorithm to optimize over a large class of protocols that create and purify GHZ states. All protocols considered use a common framework based on measurements of nonlocal stabilizer operators of the target state (i.e., the GHZ state), where each nonlocal measurement consumes another (nonperfect) entangled state as a resource. The new protocols outperform previous proposals for scenarios without decoherence and local gate noise. Furthermore, the algorithms can be applied for finding protocols for any number of parties and any number of entangled pairs involved.

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