We experimentally investigate the evaporation of very volatile liquid droplets (Novec 7000 Engineered Fluid, chemical name hydrofluoroethers HFE-7000) in a turbulent spray. Droplets with diameters of the order of a few micrometres are produced by a spray nozzle and then injected into a purpose-built enclosed dodecahedral chamber filled with air containing various amounts of water vapour. The ambient temperature and relative humidity in the chamber are carefully controlled. We observe water condensation on the rapidly evaporating droplet, both for the spray and for a single acoustically levitated millimetric Novec 7000 droplet. We further examine the effect of humidity, and reveal that a more humid environment leads to faster evaporation of the volatile liquid, as well as more water condensation. This is explained by the much larger latent heat of water as compared with that of Novec 7000. We extend an analytical model based on Fick's law to quantitatively account for the data.

We investigate the underlying physics behind the change in amplitude modulation coefficient in noncanonical wall-bounded flows in the framework of the inner-outer interaction model (IOIM) [Baars, Phys. Rev. Fluids 1, 054406 (2016)2469-990X10.1103/PhysRevFluids.1.054406]. The IOIM captures the amplitude modulation effect, and here we focus on extending the model to noncanonical flows. An analytical relationship between the amplitude modulation coefficient and IOIM parameters is derived, which is shown to capture the increasing trend of the amplitude modulation coefficient with an increasing Reynolds number in a smooth-wall dataset. This relationship is then applied to classify and interpret the noncanonical turbulent boundary layer results reported in previous works. We further present the case study of a turbulent boundary layer after a rough-to-smooth change. Both single-probe and two-probe hotwire measurements are performed to acquire streamwise velocity time series in the recovering flow on the downstream smooth wall. An increased coherence between the large-scale motions and the small-scale envelope in the near-wall region is attributed to the stronger footprints of the overenergetic large-scale motions in the outer layer, whereas the near-wall cycle and its amplitude sensitivity to the superposed structures are similar to that of a canonical smooth-wall flow. These results indicate that the rough-wall structures above the internal layer interact with the near-wall cycle in a similar manner as the increasingly energetic structures in a high-Reynolds number smooth-wall boundary layer.

In this study, we develop an analytical model to predict the turbulent boundary layer downstream of a step-change in the surface roughness where upstream flow conditions are given. We first revisit the classical model of Elliott (Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, vol. 39, 1958, pp. 1048-1054), who modelled the velocity distribution within and above the internal layer with a simple piecewise logarithmic profile, and evolved the velocity profile using the streamwise momentum equation. Elliott's model was originally developed for an atmospheric surface layer, and to make the model applicable to a spatially developing turbulent boundary layer with finite thickness, we propose a number of more physical refinements, including adding a wake function to the velocity profile, considering the growth of the entire boundary layer in the streamwise direction, and using a more realistic shear stress profile in the momentum equation. In particular, we implement the blending model (Li et al., J. Fluid Mech., vol. 923, 2021, p. A18) to account for the deviation of the mean flow within the internal layer from a canonical velocity profile based on the local wall condition. These refinements lead to improved agreement between the prediction and the measurement, especially in the vicinity of the rough-to-smooth change.

A metastable β Ti alloy was additively manufactured by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). Tensile testing along the build direction of the as-LPBF material (LPBF-0°) revealed significant work softening immediately following yielding with no uniform deformation. By contrast, substantial work hardening and uniform elongation well over 10% were achieved perpendicular to the build direction (LPBF-90°). Similar effects were obtained in the build direction after super transus heat treatment (LPBF-0°+HT) although the strength was slightly lowered. In addition, the yield drop phenomenon observed in both orientations of the as-LPBF materials disappeared after HT. The enhanced work hardening ability, and thus ductility, can be attributed to increased interactions of slip bands/slip bands owing to additional {112}<111> slip systems becoming operative in LPBF-0°+HT and LPBF-90° while LPBF-0° was dominated by {110}<111> only. The other variations after HT may be related to the coarsening of grain structure and removal of specific substructures in the as-LPBF microstructure.

Human respiratory events, such as coughing and sneezing, play an important role in the host-to-host airborne transmission of diseases. Thus, there has been a substantial effort in understanding these processes: various analytical or numerical models have been developed to describe them, but their validity has not been fully assessed due to the difficulty of a direct comparison with real human exhalations. In this study, we report a unique comparison between datasets that have both detailed measurements of a real human cough using spirometer and particle tracking velocimetry, and direct numerical simulation at similar conditions. By examining the experimental data, we find that the injection velocity at the mouth is not uni-directional. Instead, the droplets are injected into various directions, with their trajectories forming a cone shape in space. Furthermore, we find that the period of droplet emissions is much shorter than that of the cough: experimental results indicate that the droplets with an initial diameter ≳10μm are emitted within the first 0.05 s, whereas the cough duration is closer to 1 s. These two features (the spread in the direction of injection velocity and the short duration of droplet emission) are incorporated into our direct numerical simulation, leading to an improved agreement with the experimental measurements. Thus, to have accurate representations of human expulsions in respiratory models, it is imperative to include parametrisation of these two features.

Abstract: An automatic particle imaging velocimetry (Auto-PIV) measuring technique was developed based on the external triggering and automatic control technology. Measurements of the DrivAer model wake were performed using Auto-PIV in the spanwise and vertical direction. Three-dimensional time-averaged velocity distribution was reconstructed and the spatial distribution of the large coherent structures was described. The results indicate that regions with high velocity fluctuations mainly locate at the shear layer of the upper and lower edge of the recirculation bubble. Further proper orthogonal decomposition results show that the velocity fluctuations account for a very little proportion of kinetic energy compared with the time-averaged velocity, supporting that the DrivAer model has steady aerodynamic characteristics. The smooth outlines of the DrivAer notchback model can delay the flow separation on the top and the C-pillar of the model, which inhibits the formation of the back recirculation bubble at the rear window and reduces the size of the recirculation bubble behind the baggage compartment. These promote the pressure recovery at the rear of the DrivAer notchback model, and thus reduces the pressure drag. At the rear of the model, the airflow on both sides converges towards the center due to the pressure difference, producing the streamwise vorticity by shearing the baggage compartment, then separates at the rear of the baggage compartment and generates a pair of secondary vortices. Overall, the aerodynamic behavior of the DrivAer model is robust. Graphic abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.]

This study presents an experimental dataset documenting the evolution of a turbulent boundary layer downstream of a rough-to-smooth surface transition. To investigate the effect of upstream flow conditions, two groups of experiments are conducted. For the Group-Re cases, a nominally constant viscous-scaled equivalent sand grain roughness is maintained on the rough surface, while the friction Reynolds number ranges from 7100 to 21 000. For the Group-ks cases, is maintained while ranges from 111 to 228. The wall-shear stress on the downstream smooth surface is measured directly using oil-film interferometry to redress previously reported uncertainties in the skin-friction coefficient recovery trends. In the early development following the roughness transition, the flow in the internal layer is not in equilibrium with the wall-shear stress. This conflicts with the common practise of modelling the mean velocity profile as two log laws below and above the internal layer height, as first proposed by Elliott (Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, vol. 39, 1958, pp. 1048-1054). As a solution to this, the current data are used to model the recovering mean velocity semi-empirically by blending the corresponding rough-wall and smooth-wall profiles. The over-energised large-scale motions leave a strong footprint in the near-wall region of the energy spectrum, the frequency and magnitude of which exhibit dependence on and, respectively. The energy distribution in near-wall small scales is mostly unaffected by the presence of the outer flow with rough-wall characteristics, which can be used as a surrogate measure to extract the local friction velocity.

The ambient conditions surrounding liquid droplets determine their growth or shrinkage. However, the precise fate of a liquid droplet expelled from a respiratory puff as dictated by its surroundings and the puff itself has not yet been fully quantified. From the view of airborne disease transmission, such as SARS-CoV-2, knowledge of such dependencies is critical. Here, we employ direct numerical simulations (DNS) of a turbulent respiratory vapor puff and account for the mass and temperature exchange with respiratory droplets and aerosols. In particular, we investigate how droplets respond to different ambient temperatures and relative humidity (RH) by tracking their Lagrangian statistics. We reveal and quantify that in cold and humid environments, as there the respiratory puff is supersaturated, expelled droplets can first experience significant growth, and only later followed by shrinkage, in contrast to the monotonic shrinkage of droplets as expected from the classical view by Wells in 1934. Indeed, cold and humid environments diminish the ability of air to hold water vapor, thus causing the respiratory vapor puff to supersaturate. Consequently, the supersaturated vapor field drives the growth of droplets that are caught and transported within the humid puff. To analytically predict the likelihood for droplet growth, we propose a model for the axial RH based on the assumption of a quasistationary jet. Our model correctly predicts supersaturated RH conditions and is in good quantitative agreement with our DNS. Our results culminate in a temperature-RH map that can be employed as an indicator for droplet growth or shrinkage.

The intermittent distribution of localized turbulent structures is a key feature of the subcritical transitions in channel flows, which are studied in this paper with a wind channel and theoretical modeling. Entrance disturbances are introduced by small beads, and localized turbulent patches can be triggered at low Reynolds numbers (Re). High turbulence intensity represents strong ability of perturbation spread, and a maximum turbulence intensity is found for every test case as Re ≥ 950, where the turbulence fraction increases abruptly with Re. Skewness can reflect the velocity defects of localized turbulent patches and is revealed to become negative when Re is as low as about 660. It is shown that the third-order moments of the midplane streamwise velocities have minima, while the corresponding forth-order moments have maxima during the transition. These kinematic extremes and different variation scenarios of the friction coefficient during the transition are explained with an intermittent structure model, where the robust localized turbulent structure is simplified as a turbulence unit, a structure whose statistical properties are only weak functions of the Reynolds number.

A ternary hybrid Ti alloy (HYTA) was produced by selective laser melting (SLM), combining all three classes of the titanium system. The hybridisation of the α CP Ti, α-β Ti-64 and β Ti-5553 gave rise to a highly heterogeneous microstructure encompassing all the possible phases and structures which do not co-exist in conventional monolithic Ti alloys. The details of the complex microstructure were comprehensively characterised, revealing the roles played by such important factors as the distribution of the ingredient alloy particles, the Marangoni convection and diffusion of solute during melting, and microsegregation of solute during solidification. The ternary HYTA exhibited an excellent combination of high tensile yield strength of 1000 MPa and enhanced ductility with uniform elongation of ∼15% and total elongation of ∼20%, superior to conventional Ti alloys of various types. Such exceptional performance is attributed to the high-degree heterogeneity and the operation of most major deformation mechanisms which coordinate effectively and transfer smoothly between various parts with a wide range of hardness (4–6 GPa). The outcome has further demonstrated the potential of hybridisation of microstructures as a new strategy for future alloy development.

In this Letter, the velocity structures and the extension behavior of localized turbulent bands in channel flows are measured by particle image velocimetry in a plane parallel to the walls and are analyzed by comparing with direct numerical simulations at low Reynolds numbers. It is illustrated that the convection velocity of the band head (band's downstream end) is not determined by the formation and propagation of low-speed streaks but by a high-speed "hat"shaped region near the band head. This "hat"region travels downstream obliquely like a solitary wave and leaves newly generated low-speed streaks to travel slowly in the spanwise direction, leading to the head extension of turbulent bands.

This paper examines the recovery of the wall-shear stress of a turbulent boundary layer that has undergone a sudden transition from a rough to a smooth surface. Early work of Antonia & Luxton (J. Fluid Mech., vol. 53, 1972, pp. 737-757) questioned the reliability of standard smooth-wall methods for measuring wall-shear stress in such conditions, and subsequent studies show significant disagreement depending on the approach used to determine the wall-shear stress downstream. Here we address this by utilising a collection of experimental databases at that have access to both 'direct' and 'indirect' measures of the wall-shear stress to understand the recovery to equilibrium conditions of the new surface. Our results reveal that the viscous region recovers almost immediately to an equilibrium state with the new wall conditions; however, the buffer region and beyond takes several boundary layer thicknesses before recovering to equilibrium conditions, which is longer than previously thought. A unique direct numerical simulation database of a wall-bounded flow with a rough-to-smooth wall transition is employed to confirm these findings. In doing so, we present evidence that any estimate of the wall-shear stress from the mean velocity profile in the buffer region or further away from the wall tends to underestimate its magnitude in the near vicinity of the rough-to-smooth transition, and this is likely to be partly responsible for the large scatter of recovery lengths to equilibrium conditions reported in the literature. Our results also reveal that smaller energetic scales in the near-wall region recover to an equilibrium state associated with the new wall conditions within one boundary layer thickness downstream of the transition, while larger energetic scales exhibit an over-energised state for several boundary layer thicknesses downstream of the transition. Based on these observations, an alternative approach to estimating the wall-shear stress from the premultiplied energy spectrum is proposed.

The evolution of turbulent boundary layers downstream of a rough-to-smooth transition is investigated at a range of Reynolds numbers. Measurements are performed at friction Reynolds numbers of 4100, 7100, 14000 and 21000 using hotwire anemometry. The wall-shear stress on the smooth surface in each case is measured directly using oil film interferometry. The growth of the internal layer is studied, and a full recovery of all energetic scales in the energy spectrum of the streamwise velocity fluctuations is observed at 80 boundary layer thicknesses downstream of the roughness transition. A comparison of recovery lengths required for various flow statistics (skin-friction coefficient and energy spectrum) is also presented.

The wake of polygonal cylinders with side number N = 2 ∼ ∞ is systematically studied based on fluid force, hot-wire, particle image velocimetry and flow visualisation measurements. Each cylinder is examined for two orientations, with a flat surface or a corner leading and facing normally to the free stream. The Reynolds number Re is 1:0 × 10⁴ × 1:0 × 10⁵, based on the longitudinally projected cylinder width. The time-averaged drag coefficient C_D and fluctuating lift coefficient on these cylinders are documented, along with the characteristic properties including the Strouhal number St, flow separation point and angle θ_s, wake width and critical Reynolds number Re_c at which the transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs. It is found that once N exceeds 12, Re_c depends on the difference between the inner diameter (tangent to the faces) and the outer diameter (connecting corners) of a polygon, the relationship being approximately given by the dependence of Re_c on the height of the roughness elements for a circular cylinder. It is further found that C_D versus ξ or St versus ξ for all the tested cases collapse onto a single curve, where the angle ξ is the corrected θ_s associated with the laterally widest point of the polygon and the separation point. Finally, the empirical correlation between C_D and St is discussed.

Wake structures and vortex induced vibration (VIV) of a spring-supported wide-D-section cylinder were experimentally investigated using an X-wire, a novel phase-locked particle image velocimetry (PIV), and an acceleration sensor at a low speed wind tunnel. Compared with the fixed case, the 2P (two pair) vortex mode as defined by Govardhan and Williamson (2000) rather than S (single vortex) mode exists in the wake. The velocity deficit behind the cylinder is much larger than that of fixed case. The mean drag coefficient increases from 1.42 for the fixed case to 1.64 for the vibrating case. The Reynolds stress presents even distribution and small with increased distance of X/. D=. -. 2 to X/. D=. -. 10. The power spectra density based on accelerator and hot wire data presents a highlight identical. It shows that after a strong interaction the cylinder vibration and the vortex shedding come to a stable state. The vortex shedding is totally locked on and controlled by the cylinder vibration.