The objective of this research was to evaluate the lifecycle costs associated with emerging pavement maintenance technologies, namely, in-situ rejuvenation and very open emulsion asphalt concrete (ZOEAB+), and scrutinise their suitability over corrective resurfacing maintenance using a stochastic approach. A rational lifecycle inventory was developed by conducting interviews and questionnaire surveys with experts and referring to standard guidelines and international databases. The net present value (NPV) was found sensitive to 12 different inputs with traffic growth rate and discount rate causing the highest uncertainty followed by gasoline and diesel prices. Monte Carlo simulations suggested that the median uncertainty in NPV by using in-situ rejuvenation and ZOEAB+ was 13% and 4% lower than resurfacing. It is envisioned that the research outcomes will assist decision-makers in understanding the uncertainties and costs associated with different maintenance alternatives in the early stages of the project to foster procurement of sustainable and circular pavement maintenance strategies.

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Oxidative aging induces significant stiffening of asphalt binders that leads to a pronounced reduction in the overall durability of asphalt pavements. The strategic implementation of antioxidant additives provides a potential solution to alleviate this issue. This work presents results from the second phase of the global consortium for antioxidants research aimed at investigating the effectiveness of potential antioxidants in increasing the durability of asphalt binders. Sixteen laboratories around the world participated in this effort and a total of 28 binders from diverse geographical regions were tested. Two promising antioxidants, namely zinc diethyldithiocarbamate (ZDC) and kraft lignin were evaluated in this phase and blended with the binders at specific proportions. Subsequently, a comprehensive investigation was conducted to assess rheological characteristics and chemical properties of the various blends, utilising Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) measurements and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy. The findings indicate that additives such as ZDC hold considerable promise as an effective antioxidant, particularly when considering a wide diversity of binders. In general, its incorporation does not compromise the rutting performance of the binders and significantly improves fatigue performance. Therefore, research efforts should be focused on exploring additional facets to assess its practical applicability in field.

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The complex structure of bituminous mixtures ranging from nanoscale binder components to macroscale pavement performance requires a comprehensive approach to material characterization and performance prediction. This paper provides a critical analysis of advanced techniques in paving materials modeling. It focuses on four main approaches: finite element method (FEM), discrete element method (DEM), phase field method (PFM), and artificial neural networks (ANNs). The review highlights how these computational methods enable more accurate predictions of material behavior, from asphalt binder rheology to mixture performance, while reducing reliance on extensive empirical testing. Key advances, such as the smooth integration of information across multiple scales and the emergence of physics-informed neural networks (PINNs), are discussed as promising avenues for enhancing model accuracy and computational efficiency. This review not only provides a comprehensive overview of current methodologies but also outlines future research directions aimed at developing more sustainable, cost-effective, and durable paving solutions through advanced multiscale modeling techniques.@en

Bituminous binders naturally age, affecting the properties and performance of asphalt pavements. The physical and chemical characteristics of binders are influenced by environmental factors, leading to a decline in their performance and durability. Therefore, it is essential to understand the mechanisms of binder environmental aging to design more resilient and long-lasting asphalt pavements. This study examines the effects of temperature, liquid, and vapor water on binder aging to develop more durable pavements. Aging was induced at three temperatures (60°C, 70°C, 85°C) under dry air, 90% relative humidity, and water immersion conditions. Field-aged samples were also analyzed to compare with laboratory-aged samples. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) were used to assess chemical and rheological changes. To assess the similarity between samples and identify the lab aging protocol closest to field aging, Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) was employed for data analysis.

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Refurbishing of milled asphalt into new bound layers of pavement is recognized as a sustainable maintenance practice. However, limited attention has been paid towards investigating their circularity aspects. Furthermore, evolving legislative requirements call for integration of circularity and sustainability facets. Therefore, this study presents a flexible framework that aims at assessing and integrating the environmental, economic, and circularity aspects associated with two maintenance alternatives, i.e., reconstruction of pavement with a bound base layer using bituminous materials (BSM) versus routine patch repair and resurfacing. The integration of different assessment categories was performed using a metric termed as net risk reduction gain (NRRG). The results revealed that the NRRG for BSM option was 2.5 times higher than routine maintenance over a 50 year analysis period, thereby emphasizing its higher circularity and sustainability benefits. The proposed framework is envisioned to pave way for integration of circular thinking along with sustainability considerations for pavement design and construction.@en

Attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) is an essential tool for the analysis of bituminous binders due to its cost-effectiveness, user-friendliness, and non-destructive nature. However, its effectiveness is often hampered by challenges such as non-informative regions, lack of standardized analysis methods, and inconsistent baselines in spectral data. Addressing these challenges, this study aims to comprehensively evaluate the impact of various data pre-processing (DP) methods on ATR-FTIR spectra from diverse bituminous binder types, sources, and aging conditions. Using partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLSDA) classification, the study assesses the effectiveness of baseline correction, normalization, and their combinations. The methodology involves analyzing peak areas, indices, entire spectra, and first derivative spectra to determine the most effective pre-processing strategies. Key findings reveal that the effectiveness of DP methods is influenced by the classification goals, characteristics of the spectral dataset, and the specific methods employed for input data preparation. The study demonstrates that using entire spectra or their first derivatives leads to higher classification accuracy compared to indices or specific spectral peak areas. The choice between peak area and indices calculation methods should align with the study’s objectives. For efficient and rapid selection of DP methods, tools like PLSDA are recommended. Among the normalization methods, normalization to constant vector length (NCV), normalization to change the maximum to 1 (NMO), robust scaling (RS), and normalization to sum (NTS) are suitable for peak area or indices-based classification. For entire spectra and their first derivatives, NTS, NCV, autoscaling (AS), pareto scaling (PS), and standard normal variate (SNV) methods are recommended. Regarding baseline correction, Adaptive Smoothness Penalized Least Squares (aspls) is suitable for studies focusing on gradual material changes, such as multi-level aging studies, but not for additive
detection studies. The findings of this study provide valuable insights and practical recommendations for selecting appropriate DP methods, thereby enhancing the classification accuracy and reliability of ATR-FTIR spectral analysis of bituminous binders. This contributes significantly to the design of experiments, reduces operational risks, and optimizes resource utilization in the field.@en

This study aims to correlate the chemical and rheological properties of bitumen at different ageing states and understand the chemical mechanisms of bitumen degradation due to ageing. The relationship between Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectral data and rheological results is investigated using partial least squares (PLS) regression integrated with two variable selection methods. The spectral region of 1800 – 800 cm1 is identified as the most informative for accurate estimation of the rheological properties of bitumen. Variable selection methods, particularly moving windows (MW), improve the prediction accuracy of the regression models.

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Asphalt pavements are subjected to various environmental factors such as rainfall, sunlight, humidity and wind that causes oxidative aging of bitumen, leading to reduced structural and functional performances in the longer run. Antioxidants are often added to asphalt binders to enhance their resistance to oxidative ageing. In the current study, two different antioxidants, Zinc Diethyldithiocarbamate and Lignin were evaluated for their effectiveness in improving the performance of asphalt binders. The laboratory mixing procedures were conducted at two different percentages, and laboratory aging were performed. Rheological and chemical tests were then conducted to evaluate the performance of the binders at different temperatures. The current study provides valuable insights into the use of antioxidants for improving the performance and service life of asphalt pavements, which will help in the development of perpetual asphalt pavements in the future.

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RILEM TC-279 WMR task group TG 1 studied the performance of waste Polyethylene (PE) in bituminous binders and bituminous mixtures. Several laboratories participated in this study following a common protocol. Locally sources aggregates and bituminous binder and same source of waste PE were utilized. The binder experiments showed that at high temperatures, using MSCR tests, PE modified blends had better resistance to permanent deformation in comparison to the non modified binder. Whereas at intermediate temperatures, using the LAS tests, fatigue performance of the PE blends could withstand more loading cycles under low strains; however, it could sustain less loading cycles under high strains due to the increase in brittleness. Dry process was used for the mixture experiments in order to bypass the stability and inhomogeneity experience that was observed at the binder scale. The PE modified mixtures showed improved workability and increased strength. The higher the PE dosage, the higher the ITS increase with respect to the values measured for the control materials (i.e., without any plastic waste) thanks to the improved cohesion of the plastic modified mastic. The stiffness experiments tended to show an improved performance with a lower time dependence and a higher elasticity when plastic was added. The cyclic compression tests demonstrated a reduced creep rate along with a higher creep modulus thanks to the addition of PE; similar conclusions can be drawn from the experimental findings coming from wheel tracking test. Furthermore, acceptable and often improved moisture resistance was observed for PE modified materials.

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The chemical characterization of bitumen type and ageing state are fundamental in determining structural and mechanical properties of bitumen. This work aims to classify various bitumen types at different ageing states and to identify the primary chemical differences relevant to the classification. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectral data of eight bitumen types at five ageing states were analyzed using a chemometric procedure that incorporates principal component analysis (PCA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA) models, variable selection methods. The models presented results of high accuracy in differentiating bitumen type and ageing state. The results show that the spectral regions that describe the aliphatic and aromatic bonds are critical to the identification of bitumen types. The chemical changes due to bitumen ageing are mainly revealed at the region of 1800–900 cm-1. This chemometric method is instructive for the characterization of chemical bitumen properties.

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Water transport is one of the major factors responsible for moisture damage in asphalt pavements. To study the thermodynamics and kinetics of water transport in bitumen and to uncover microscale mechanisms of moisture-induced damage, molecular dynamics simulations were performed for up to 600 ns for water–bitumen systems with realistic water contents that varied from 0 to 1.76 wt%. Hydrogen bonding interactions and clustering of water molecules at various combinations of temperature and water content were investigated, and their effects on the self-diffusion coefficient of water and bitumen properties are computed and discussed. It is shown that the saturated water concentration in bitumen is small, especially at low temperatures, and additional water molecules tend to form large water clusters via hydrogen bonding, indicating micro-phase separation of the water and bitumen phases inside the simulation box. Hydrogen bonding and water clustering play a crucial role on the magnitude of the self-diffusion coefficient of water. Physical properties of bitumen that include viscosity and cohesive energy are affected by water. The presence of large water clusters is indicative of how degradation in cohesion is observed on the microscale.

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Implementation of the circular economy and resource efficiency has the potential to significantly tackle the root causes of global challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution whilst at the same time providing regenerative design for generations to come. The CEDR funded CERCOM project facilitates a move towards circular public procurement of national road infrastructure. A flexible and stable approach using ranked interpolation is used to generate KPI values for various criterion, where the user can specify the desired level of complexity based on scheme requirements and data available. The framework considers technical, economic, environmental and social criteria, as well as circularity, while assessing the change in risks in moving from a linear to a circular economy. National Road Authorities (NRAs) are at different maturity levels in relation to circularity. The developed framework caters for this, allowing flexibility for NRAs to tailor their application of the framework to suit their maturity level and the scheme under consideration. The outcome is a user-friendly intuitive tool with a step-by-step approach to enable informed decision making around adoption of the principles of circular economy in the maintenance of highway infrastructure.@en

Correction to: Materials and Structures (2022) 55:146 https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-022-01986-w

The article “Do chemistry and rheology follow the same laboratory ageing trends in bitumen?”, written by Georgios Pipintakos, Caitlin Lommaert, Aikaterini Varveri and Wim Van den bergh, was originally published in volume 55, issue 5, ID 146 without open access. With the society's decision to grant Open Choice the copyright of the article changed in February 2023 to © The Author(s) 2022 and the article is forthwith distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0. Open access funding enabled and organized by RILEM.

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The concept of a circular economy, where waste materials are transformed into valuable resources, is gaining increasing attention. However, many waste streams are difficult to recycle due to their mixed composition and broad molecular distribution. This paper explores the potential of repurposing mixed materials, specifically focusing on creating a circular alternative to bitumen, a fossil-based binder used in road construction. The molecular weight and composition of bitumen are analyzed using gas chromatography (GC) and infrared spectroscopy (IR). This study proposes using waste plastics and bio-based oils to develop a paving binder with similar molecular distribution. Various plastic types, such as low-density polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), isotactic polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), are examined for their compatibility with different oils. It is observed that the compatibility of both the molecular weight and composition between the plastic and oil is crucial for the successful dissolution and homogeneity of the binder. Additionally, the crystallinity of the plastic plays a role in the flexibility and durability of the resulting binder. It is demonstrated that by carefully selecting waste materials and understanding their molecular characteristics, it is possible to create circular alternatives to fossil-based materials like bitumen. This approach has the potential to reduce waste, lower dependence on fossil resources, and contribute to sustainable and circular construction materials.@en

The rejuvenation efficiency of aged bitumen is the main concern when developing rejuvenating agents. It is necessary to develop a method to assess the efficiency of rejuvenators using rheological parameters in the whole frequency region. To this end, the 2S2P1D micromechanics model is adopted to fit the entire G∗ master curves of various rejuvenated bitumen, and the influence of rejuvenator type/dosage and aging grade of bitumen on the whole G∗ master curve and chemical indices are investigated. Critical parameters for evaluating rejuvenation efficiency derived from viscoelastic models and chemical characterizations are proposed. Furthermore, the potential relationships between the rheological model-based parameters (E _∞, δ, β, and τ) and chemical indices (carbonyl index CI and sulfoxide index SI) are explored. The results indicate that rejuvenators restore the δ, τ, CI, and SI values of aged bitumen towards the virgin bitumen level. The E _∞ parameter is not applicable to evaluate the rejuvenation efficiency of engine-oil and naphthenic-oil rejuvenators, but the positive E _∞R values of bio-oil and aromatic-oil rejuvenated bitumen are detected. All rejuvenators fail to restore the β parameter of aged bitumen. The τ and CI parameters are selected as critical evaluation indicators from the perspective of viscoelastic models and chemical characteristics. Linear correlations between all rheological parameters and chemical indices are observed and established.

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Moisture in bitumen and at the bitumen-aggregate interface affects the cohesive and adhesive properties of asphalt mixtures, which are critical for the service performance and durability of pavements. This paper aims to investigate the kinetics and thermodynamics of moisture transport in bitumen at various temperatures and relative humidity for different bitumen types. Transport models are introduced to study the moisture transport mechanisms. A parameter optimization approach combined with the finite element method is applied to simulate moisture transport behavior. Results show salient sorption increase at higher relative humidity levels (more than 70%), indicating the occurrence of clustering of water molecules in bitumen, which can lead to a significant decrease of the diffusion coefficient. Transport models show great quality in simulating experimental results, in which the S-Cluster model provides a detailed explanation of the moisture transport mechanisms and describes better the performance at high sorption levels. The diffusion coefficient, cluster size and activation energy were determined and were found to be linked to the bitumen chemical and structural properties. The transport kinetics and thermodynamics are expected to contribute to a comprehensive understanding of moisture transport behavior in bitumen and further of pavement moisture damage at complex and interacting environmental conditions.

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The lifetime of Porous Asphalt (PA) can be extended by doing preventive maintenance by means of rejuvenation products. The Dutch Road Authority for highways, Rijkswaterstaat (RWS), has constructed several test sections and monitors the development of stone loss by using the DOS/LCMS system. The monitoring runs now for 9 years and shows that in sections treated with rejuvenation products the development of raveling of PA16 is delayed for at least 3 years compared to non-treated sections. For 2-layered PA, 2LPA8 no raveling has been seen, thus no delay has been (yet) observed. Samples have been retrieved from drilled cores, which have been investigated by Rotating Surface Abrasion Test for stone loss, aging and erosion of the mortar. The results of the research are discussed. It is concluded that the method of investigation by taking cores arbitrarily on project level poorly reflect the average stone loss in a 100 m section.

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Inter-laboratory experiments were designed to evaluate the impact of plastic waste blended directly in bitumen and to assess the properties, using conventional and advanced bituminous binder testing. The blends targeted 5% of plastic waste in 95% bitumen, using two types of polyethylene (PE) primary (pellets) and secondary (shreds) waste. The experiments showed that the addition of PE waste to bitumen does not alter the chemistry of the bitumen, the blending is physical. The DSR results indicate a strong dependency on the testing temperature as at low temperatures the composite material bitumen and PE behave both elastically whereas, at higher temperatures, the bitumen becomes viscoelastic. The MSCR tests indicated that the neat binder is more sensitive to permanent deformation compared to the blends with PE. The fatigue performance using the Linear Amplitude Sweep test showed a better performance in terms of stress and fatigue life for the PE blends.

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