Shoreward sand transport and dune development are increasingly influenced by the urbanization of beach-dune systems in the Netherlands. Three topographic datasets, on various spatio-temporal scales, are used to study the effect of standalone buildings on long term local dune development. On the smallest scale, terrestrial laser scans are used to study the geomorphological effects of two sea containers on the beach. On the intermediate scale, the geomorphological effects of a beach pavilion on the local dune development are studied with a 2-year topographic dataset of (bi) monthly permanent laser scans. Finally, 15 yearly airborne lidar scans of the beach-dune system in Noordwijk are used to evaluate the effect of multiple beach pavilions on dune growth variations. The small-scale experiment shows that horseshoe-shaped deposition patterns developed on the leeside of the containers. These depositions follow daily wind changes and leave deposits corresponding to the residual wind direction over the whole measuring period. Similar patterns are found around the larger beach pavilion, but anthropogenic activities like bulldozing and beach shaping make the determination of the effect on dune development harder to discern. Evaluation of the longer-term dataset reveals large variations in dune height and volume around beach pavilions. Dune height/volume increases vary between 1 and 8 m in height and 0–200 m3 in volume. A variability analysis shows that the length scale of alongshore variability in dune height/volume of urbanized dunes can be 10 times smaller than for natural dunes. For about half the beach pavilions, variations in dune height and volume are significantly correlated to the location of beach pavilions but correlation to particular beach pavilion properties is yet inconclusive.

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Sandy beach-dune systems make up a large part of coastal areas world wide. Their function as an eco-system as well as a protective barrier for human and natural habitat is under increased threat due to climate change. A thorough understanding of change processes at the sediment surface is essential to facilitate prediction of future development and management strategies to maintain their function. Especially slow and small scale processes happening over several days up to weeks at cm level, such as aeolian sand transport are difficult to identify and analyse. Permanent laser scanning (PLS) is a useful tool in the study and analysis of coastal processes as it captures a data representation of the evolution of the sediment surface over extended periods of time (up to several years) with high detail (at cm-dm level). The PLS data set considered for this study, consists of hourly acquired 3D point clouds representing the surface evolution of a section of the Dutch coast during three years. However, it is challenging to extract concrete information on specific change processes from the large and complex PLS data set. We use multiple hypothesis testing in order to reduce the PLS data set to a so-called inventory of trends, consisting of 12.8 million partial time series with associated rate of change and elevation. The inventory of trends proofs to be a suitable tool to identify natural processes such as storms and aeolian sand transport in our test area in the aeolian zone of a sandy beach-dune system on the Dutch coast. We identify these processes and provide a tool to derive summarising data from the complex PLS data set. We find that all partial time series identified as most likely representing aeolian sand transport, result in 1354 m³ of sand deposition in our study area over the course of three years. We also show a comparison with transects from JarKus data and find a correlation between anthropogenic activities and erosion in our test area with a correlation coefficient of 0.3.

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Coastal dunes provide an important role to society by fulfilling various ecosystem functions. These are however under pressure due to sea level rise, climate change and urbanization. Shoreward sand transport can partly mitigate sea level rise and climate effects by contributing to dune growth but increasing urbanization of beaches can block this transport and restoration of ecosystem functions. In this paper, we investigate the long-term effects of buildings and other anthropogenic influences on dune development up to a decadal temporal scale. A series of three topographic datasets is used to study the effect of anthropogenic actors on local dune development at an urban beach in Noordwijk, the Netherlands. Datasets range from a 100 to 3000-meter spatial scale and from a weekly to yearly temporal scale. On the smallest spatio-temporal scale topographic measurements of the effects of two containers placed on Noordwijk beach are studied. The intermediate dataset is obtained from the 2-year CoastScan project monitoring surface elevation around one beach pavilion at (bi) monthly intervals. Finally, 15 years of annual airborne lidar data along a 2.7-kilometer stretch of the beach/dune system in Noordwijk is used to evaluate the effect of 17 pavilions. The small-scale experiment shows that horseshoe-shaped deposition patterns developed on the leeside of the containers. These depositions follow daily wind changes and leave deposits corresponding to the residual wind direction over the whole measuring period. Similar patterns are found around the beach pavilion, but, due to anthropogenic influences like bulldozing and beach shaping, longer term patterns in the direct vicinity of the pavilion and the dunes are hard to discern. Evaluation of the longer term dataset reveals large variations in dune height and volume in the neighborhood of beach pavilions. Dune height/volume increases vary between 1-8 m in dune height and vary between 0-200 m3 in dune volume after 15 years along 2.7 km of coast. An autocorrelation analysis shows that the alongshore variability length scale in dune volume of urbanized dunes can be 10 times smaller than for natural dunes. For about half the beach pavilions, variations in dune height and volume are significantly correlated to the location of the beach pavilion. Here the growth behind the buildings is lower than in the surrounding area which might have consequences for long-term resilience against future climate changes.@en

Sandy beaches are subject to changes due to multiple factors, that are both natural (e.g. storms) and anthropogenic. Great efforts are being made to monitor these ecosystems and understand their dynamics in order to assure their conservation. The identification of anthropogenic changes and its differentiation from natural ones is an important task for coastal monitoring. In this study, we present a methodology for the detection of anthropogenic changes in a coastal ecosystem by automatically detecting active bulldozers in continuous beach video data. PCA is used to highlight changes in consecutive images due to moving objects. Next, the YOLO object detection algorithm is used to identify the bulldozers in the change images. YOLO was specifically trained for the task, obtaining a precision of 0.94 and a recall of 0.81. An automatic tool was developed, and the process was carried out on two months of video data, consisting of approximately 19 000 images. The resulting information was compared with changes derived from 3D data obtained from a permanent laser scanner. The correlation among the results of the two methodologies was computed. For a validation area and daily time frame a correlation of 0.88 was obtained between the number of detected bulldozers and the area affected by changes in height larger than 0.3 m.

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In the view of climate change, understanding and managing effects on coastal areas and adjacent cities is essential. Permanent Laser Scanning (PLS) is a successful technique to not only observe notably sandy coasts incidentally or once every year, but (nearly) continuously over extended periods of time. The collected point cloud observations form a 4D point cloud data set representing the evolution of the coast provide the opportunity to assess change processes at high level of detail. For an exemplary location in Noordwijk, The Netherlands, three years of hourly point clouds were acquired on a 1 km long section of a typical Dutch urban sandy beach. Often, the so-called level of detection is used to assess point cloud differences from two epochs. To explicitly incorporate the temporal dimension of the height estimates from the point cloud data set, we revisit statistical testing theory. We apply multiple hypothesis testing on elevation time series in order to identify different coastal processes, like aeolian sand transport or bulldozer works. We then estimate the minimal detectable bias for different alternative hypotheses, to quantify the minimal elevation change that can be estimated from the PLS observations over a certain period of time. Additionally, we analyse potential error sources and influences on the elevation estimations and provide orders of magnitudes and possible ways to deal with them. Finally we conclude that elevation time series from a long term PLS data set are a suitable input to identify aeolian sand transport with the help of multiple hypothesis testing. In our example case, slopes of 0.032 m/day and sudden changes of 0.031 m can be identified with statistical power of 80% and with 95% significance in 24-h time series on the upper beach. In the intertidal area the presented method allows to classify daily elevation time series over one month according to the dominating model (sudden change or linear trend) in either eroding or accreting behaviour.

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Many sand spits are morphodynamically complex landforms, that are either analysed with complex and expensive computational models or at a conceptual level. Therefore, most case studies on spits in different environments are descriptive. A novel method based on the use of polar coordinates was devised to quantitatively analyse spit morphodynamics in a non-tidal, wind-dominated lake environment, using the Marker Wadden islands in Lake Markermeer, the Netherlands, as a case study. A high-resolution morphological data set allowed for the quantification of sedimentation processes around two spits, in two distinctive depth zones. Spit-platform growth is governed by alongshore currents that transport sediment over the spit-platform into deeper waters; the size of the spit-platform in turn affects the growth of the spit around the mean water level. Insight in this complex interplay of processes is crucial to understand spit behaviour in low-energy lake environments. At the Marker Wadden the submerged spit-platform grows during high energy wind events while the emerged spit part grows under mild to moderate energy conditions. With this new method we can quantitatively explore the role of different wave and flow conditions and predict spit growth direction in non-tidal, wind-dominated environments, beyond the level of conceptual descriptions.

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Sandy coasts form the interface between land and sea and their morphologies are highly dynamic. A combination of human and natural forcing results in morphologic changes affecting both nature values and coastal safety. Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) is a technique enabling near-continuous monitoring of the changing morphology of a sandy beach-dune system with centimetre-order accuracy. In Kijkduin, The Netherlands, a laser scanner sampled one kilometre of coast at hourly intervals for about six months. This resulted in over 4,000 consecutive topographic scans of around one million points each, at decimetre-order point spacing. Analysis of the resulting dataset will offer new insights into the morphological behaviour of the beach-dune system at hourly to monthly time scales, ultimately increasing our fundamental scientific understanding of these complex geographic systems. It further provides the basis for developing novel algorithms to extract morphodynamic and geodetic information from this unique 4D spatiotemporal dataset. Finally, experiences from this TLS setup support the development of improved near-continuous 3D observation of both natural and anthropogenic scenes in general.

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Coastal areas world wide are highly dynamic areas, subject to continuous deformation processes. Both natural and anthropogenic processes constantly cause changes at various spatial scales. Sandy beaches in the Netherlands fall under a regulation, according to which moving sand is permitted, if the volume change remains below a certain threshold. The threshold holds for volume changes within a cross section of 1 m width of the beach. The enforcement of this rule is currently labor intensive, because monitoring generally happens only on a yearly basis, or incidental and non-quantitative. Improved observation capabilities with remote sensing are advancing the supporting technology for this kind of regulations. Permanent laser scanning is a potential tool for monitoring and quantifying volume changes of a section of the beach. We develop and implement methodology to extract time series of volume change with respect to a reference date of 01-01-2020 covering January 2020 until the end of April 2020. The method is applied on point cloud data from a permanent laser scanner on the coast of Noordwijk, The Netherlands. We analyse the time series for incidents, where the threshold in volume change is passed, and find all shortest intervals during which the threshold is passed. Then we analyse potential underlying cause in order to support not only enforcement, but also evaluation of the current regulation. This will ultimately help to work towards a better understanding of the influence of small scale human activities on coastal development.

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The European beach-dune systems are under increasing pressure due to urbanization, beach tourism and the effects of climate change like rising sea level and increased storm intensity. Building with nature solutions (Stive et al., 2013) are advocated as an effective and adaptable approach to protect sandy coasts in the future. This approach however interacts with the increased human use of the beaches- which can have an adverse impact on the efficiency of the building with nature approach. Especially permanent structures influence the natural sand transport dynamics from the beach to the dunes and can have long lasting effects on dune development. To obtain more insight into the influence of buildings on longer term dune development a 3-months ‘Scanex 2020’ field campaign was conducted (Poppema et al., 2021) on Noordwijk beach (52.24 °N, 4.42 °E) to monitor the natural sand development around two sea containers (see Figure 1). In addition on a larger scale the dune development around a permanent beach pavilion was monitored for two years (from August 2019 till August 2021) within the CoastScan project (Vos et al., 2017) with a permanent laser scanner. @en

Geographic observation benefits from the increasing availability of time series of 3D geospatial data, which allow analysis of change processes at high temporal detail and over extensive periods. In this context, the demand for advanced methods to detect and extract topographic surface changes from these 4D geospatial data emerges. Changes in natural scenes occur with varying magnitude, duration, spatial extent, and change rate, and the timing of their occurrence is not known. Standard pairwise change detection requires the selection of fixed analysis periods and the specification of magnitude thresholds to determine accumulation or erosion forms. In settings with continuous surface morphology and dynamic changes to the surface due to material transport, such change forms are typically temporary and may be missed or aggregated if they occur with spatial and/or temporal overlap. This is overcome with the extraction of 4D objects-by-change (4D-OBCs). These objects are obtained by firstly detecting surface changes in the temporal domain at locations in the scene. Subsequently, they are spatially delineated by considering the full history of surface change during region growing from the seed location of a detected change. To perform this spatiotemporal segmentation systematically for entire 3D time series, we develop a fully automatic approach of seed detection and selection, combined with locally adaptive thresholding for region growing of individual objects with varying change properties. We apply our workflow to a five-months hourly time series of around 3,000 terrestrial laser scanning point clouds acquired for coastal monitoring at a sandy beach in The Netherlands. This provides 2,021 4D-OBCs as extracted accumulation or erosion forms. Results are validated through majority agreement of six expert analysts, who evaluate the segmentation performance at sample locations throughout the scene. Accordingly, our method extracts surface changes with an error of omission of 4.7% and an error of commission of 16.6%. We examine the results and provide considerations how postprocessing of segments can further improve the change analysis workflow. The developed approach thereby provides a powerful tool for automatic change analysis in 4D geospatial data, namely to detect and delineate natural surface changes across space and time.

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The measurement of surface moisture on beaches is vital for studying aeolian sand transport mechanisms, but existing techniques are not adequate for monitoring the surface moisture dynamics over a substantial beach section. In this study, we investigated the suitability of a new remote sensing method to monitor the spatiotemporal variation in surface moisture on a sandy beach using a long-range static terrestrial laser scanner (TLS). The TLS was permanently deployed on top of a 42 m high building overlooking the study site at Ostend-Mariakerke, Belgium. Considering the effect of target surface roughness on the intensity and the laboratory’s length limitation, a new intensity correction method is proposed which only uses the field point cloud data measured on a homogenous beach surface (without time-consuming indoor experiments). Based on the corrected intensity data, the relation of the beach surface moisture to the corrected intensity was modeled by an exponential model with a correlation-coefficient squared of 0.92. A moisture estimation model was developed which can directly derive the beach surface moisture from the original intensity data of the TLS with a standard error of 2.27%. The hourly surface moisture dynamics across two tidal cycles on the beach were investigated as a case study, in which the point clouds derived from corresponding unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery are utilized to improve the calculation accuracy of the incidence angles of TLS point clouds at long distances. Results reveal that, after the intensity correction, the long-range static TLS is an extremely suitable technique to monitor the surface moisture dynamics (daytime and nighttime) over a substantial beach section (hundreds of meters) at a high scanning frequency (minutes to hours).@en

In sandy environments, like the beach-dune system, buildings not only affect the airflow, but also the aeolian sediment transport in their surroundings. In this study, we determine how the horizontal size of sediment deposition patterns around buildings depends on the building's dimensions. Four one-day experiments were conducted at the beach using box-shaped scale models. We tested 32 building geometries, where scale model height, width and length ranged between 0.3 and 2.0 m. The deposition patterns were substantial in size: the total length and width of the deposition area were up to an order of magnitude larger than the horizontal building dimensions. It was found that the size of upwind and downwind deposition patterns depended more on the building width perpendicular to the wind direction (w), than on the building height (h). Building length had little influence. Especially the combined effect of w and h correlated well with horizontal deposition size. This is expressed in a new scaling length B for deposition around buildings, with B=w^2/3·h^1/3. As a first validation, the spatial dimensions of the initial deposition patterns observed around a scale model of 2.5 × 12 × 2.5 m, placed at the beach for five weeks, showed good agreement with those predicted based on B.

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Sandy coasts are constantly changing environments governed by complex, interacting processes. Permanent laser scanning is a promising technique to monitor such coastal areas and to support analysis of geomorphological deformation processes. This novel technique delivers 3-D representations of the coast at hourly temporal and centimetre spatial resolution and allows us to observe small-scale changes in elevation over extended periods of time. These observations have the potential to improve understanding and modelling of coastal deformation processes. However, to be of use to coastal researchers and coastal management, an efficient way to find and extract deformation processes from the large spatiotemporal data set is needed. To enable automated data mining, we extract time series of surface elevation and use unsupervised learning algorithms to derive a partitioning of the observed area according to change patterns. We compare three well-known clustering algorithms (k-means clustering, agglomerative clustering and density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise; DBSCAN), apply them on the set of time series and identify areas that undergo similar evolution during 1 month.We test if these algorithms fulfil our criteria for suitable clustering on our exemplary data set. The three clustering methods are applied to time series over 30 d extracted from a data set of daily scans covering about 2 km of coast in Kijkduin, the Netherlands. A small section of the beach, where a pile of sand was accumulated by a bulldozer, is used to evaluate the performance of the algorithms against a ground truth. The k-means algorithm and agglomerative clustering deliver similar clusters, and both allow us to identify a fixed number of dominant deformation processes in sandy coastal areas, such as sand accumulation by a bulldozer or erosion in the intertidal area. The level of detail found with these algorithms depends on the choice of the number of clusters k. The DBSCAN algorithm finds clusters for only about 44% of the area and turns out to be more suitable for the detection of outliers, caused, for example, by temporary objects on the beach. Our study provides a methodology to efficiently mine a spatiotemporal data set for predominant deformation patterns with the associated regions where they occur.

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Beach Surface Moisture (BSM) is a key attribute in the coastal investigations of land-atmospheric water and energy fluxes, groundwater resource budgets and coastal beach/dune development. In this study, an attempt has been made for the first time to estimate BSM from terrestrial LiDAR intensity data based on the Support Vector Regression (SVR). A long-range static terrestrial LiDAR (Riegl VZ-2000) was adopted to collect point cloud data of high spatiotemporal resolution on the Ostend-Mariakerke beach, Belgium. Based on the field moisture samples, SVR models were developed to retrieve BSM, using the backscattered intensity, scanning ranges and incidence angles as input features. The impacts of the training samples’ size and density on the predictive accuracy and generalization capability of the SVR models were fully investigated based on simulated BSM-intensity samples. Additionally, we compared the performance of the SVR models for BSM estimation with the traditional Stepwise Regression (SR) method and the Artificial Neural Network (ANN). Results show that SVR could accurately retrieve the BSM from the backscattered intensity with high reproducibility (average test RMSE of 0.71% ± 0.02% and R² of 0.98% ± 0.002%). The Radial Basis Function (RBF) was the most suitable kernel for SVR model development in this study. The impacts of scanning geometry on the intensity could also be accurately corrected in the process of estimating BSM by the SVR models. However, compared to the SR method, the predictive accuracy and generalization performance of SVR models were significantly dependent on the training samples’ coverage, size and distribution, suggesting the need for the training samples of uniform distribution and representativeness. The minimum size of training samples required for SVR model development was 54. Under this condition, SVR performed similarly to ANN with a test RMSE of 1.06%, but SVR still performed acceptably (with an RMSE of 1.83%) even using extremely few training samples (only 16 field samples of uniform distribution), far better than the ANN (with an RMSE of 4.02%).

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Anthropogenic activities and climate change in coastal areas require continuous monitoring for a better understanding of environmental evolution and for the implementation of protection strate-gies. Surface moisture is one of the important drivers of coastal variability because it highly affects shoreward sand transport via aeolian processes. Several methods have been explored for measuring surface moisture at different spatiotemporal resolutions, and in recent years, light detection and ranging (LiDAR) technology has been investigated as a remote sensing tool for high-spatiotemporal-resolution moisture detection. The aim of the present study is the assessment of the performance of a permanent terrestrial laser scanner (TLS) with an original setting located on a high position and hourly scanning of a wide beach area stretching from a swash zone to the base of a dune in order to evaluate the soil moisture at a high spatiotemporal resolution. The reflectance of a Riegl-VZ2000 located in Noordwijk on the Dutch coast was used to assess a new calibration curve that allows the estimation of soil moisture. Three days of surveys were conducted to collect ground-truth soil moisture measurements with a time-domain reflectometry (TDR) sensor at 4 cm depth. Each in situ measurement was matched with the closest reflectance measurement provided by the TLS; the data were interpolated using a non-linear least squares method. A calibration curve that allowed the estimation of the soil moisture in the range of 0–30% was assessed; it presented a root-mean-square error (RMSE) of 4.3% and a coefficient of determination (R-square) of 0.86. As an innovative aspect, the calibration curve was tested under different circumstances, including weather conditions and tidal levels. Moreover, the TDR data collected during an independent survey were used to vali-date the assessed curve. The results show that the permanent TLS is a highly suitable technique for accurately evaluating the surface moisture variations on a wide sandy beach area with a high spatiotemporal resolution.

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Near-continuously acquired terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) data contains valuable information on natural surface dynamics. An important step in geographic analyses is to detect different types of changes that can be observed in a scene. For this, spatiotemporal segmentation is a time series-based method of surface change analysis that removes the need to select analysis periods, providing so-called 4D objects-by-change (4D-OBCs). This involves higher computational effort than pairwise change detection, and efforts scale with (i) the temporal density of input data and (ii) the (variable) spatial extent of delineated changes. These two factors determine the cost and number of Dynamic Time Warping distance calculations to be performed for deriving the metric of time series similarity. We investigate how a reduction of the spatial and temporal resolution of input data influences the delineation of twelve erosion and accumulation forms, using an hourly five-month TLS time series of a sandy beach. We compare the spatial extent of 4D-OBCs obtained at reduced spatial (1.0m to 15.0m with 0.5m steps) and temporal (2h to 96h with 2h steps) resolution to the result from highest-resolution data. Many change delineations achieve acceptable performance with ranges of ±10% to ±100% in delineated object area, depending on the spatial extent of the respective change form. We suggest a locally adaptive approach to identify poor performance at certain resolution levels for the integration in a hierarchical approach. Consequently, the spatial delineation could be performed at high accuracy for specific target changes in a second iteration. This will allow more efficient 3D change analysis towards near-realtime, online TLS-based observation of natural surface changes.

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Monitoring of beach and nearshore environments is essential for obtaining better insights into the functioning of the coastal zone. It has driven the understanding of these environments and worked beneficially alongside modelling studies. Hydrodynamics, water quality, and sedimentological and morphological processes can be observed and quantified through field measurements. A successful monitoring programme has a well-considered design, reflecting the interests of all parties involved and balancing scientific requirements (such as measuring scales and resolutions in time and space) against available budgets and resources. The key to utilizing the monitoring result is a data management system that accommodates the FAIR principles – Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable – for data handling. For the future of coastal monitoring we foresee that recent technological developments will help define the way; particularly miniaturized sensors, data transmission advances, and remote sensing techniques. These developments, especially if embedded in high-profile, open-access coastal observatories, can pave the way towards now-casting of coastal systems.@en

Intertidal bars are naturally occurring morphological features along the waterline of sandy beaches. Present quantitative knowledge on intertidal bar behavior is limited, due to the scarcity of data resources and the limitations of traditional survey techniques. To investigate and quantify the cross-shore morphologic behavior of intertidal bars, hourly terrestrial laser scans of Kijkduin beach (The Netherlands) are used and a conceptual evolution intertidal bar model is constructed. In a six-week period in January and February 2017, a pronounced intertidal bar formed at Kijkduin beach and migrated onshore during mild wave conditions and eroded again during storm conditions. The observed maximum shoreward migration was 30 m horizontally with a maximum growth of about 1 m in the vertical direction. Onshore sediment transport fluxes peaked around 2 m³ per m width per day. In the conceptual model proposed here, run-up and overwash processes are dominant for shoreward growth and migration of the bar and submersion processes are responsible for bar destruction.

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An increased preference for building with nature solutions to mitigate possible negative effects of predicted climate change urges to acquire additional knowledge on coastal variability and resilience. Permanent laser scanning is a new and promising tool to observe and analyse natural variations at short (i.e. hourly) timescales for extended periods of time (i.e. years). In order to establish an error estimate over both space and time, a six months period of daily laser scans obtained at Kijkduin was analysed. The scans were obtained from a permanent laser scan setup on top of a hotel. We provide an overview of possible spatiotemporal error sources and of errors associated with a permanent laser setups for this particular example data set. In addition, some quantitative insights in the data quality are derived by assessing the variability of several parameters in space and time. Our analysis shows, that we can establish possible errors due to deformations in the laser scanner set up as well as small changes in range to reference objects at larger distances. Analysis of ranges within the point cloud shows that the range changes over time are in the order of centimetres indicating minimal deformation of the point clouds over time.@en

Time series of topographic data are becoming increasingly widespread for monitoring geomorphic activity. Dense 3D time series are now obtained by near-continuous terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) installations, which acquire data at high frequency (e.g. hourly) and over long periods. Such datasets contain valuable information on topographic evolution over varying spatial and temporal scales. Current analyses however are mostly conducted based on pairwise surface or object-based change, which typically require the selection of thresholds and intervals to identify the processes involved and fail to account for the full history of change. Detected change may therefore be difficult to attribute to one or more underlying geomorphic processes causing the surface alteration. We present an automatic method for 4D change analysis that includes the temporal domain by using the history of surface change to extract the period and spatial extent of changes. A 3D space-time array of surface change values is derived from an hourly TLS time series acquired at a sandy beach over five months (2967 point clouds). Change point detection is performed in the time series at individual locations and used to identify change processes, such as the appearance and disappearance of an accumulation form. These provide the seed to spatially segment ‘4D objects-by-change’ using a metric of time series similarity in a region growing approach. Results are compared to pairwise surface change for three selected cases of anthropogenic and natural processes on the beach. The obtained information reflects the evolution of a change process and its spatial extent over the change period, thereby improving upon the results of pairwise analysis. The method allows the detection and spatiotemporal delineation of even subtle changes induced by sand transport on the surface. 4D objects-by-change can therefore provide new insights on spatiotemporal characteristics of geomorphic activity, particularly in settings of continuous surfaces with dynamic morphologies.

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