Existing knowledge about groyne-induced effects is primarily based on riverine or coastal environments where salinity gradients are absent or limited. However, in estuaries, salinity gradients drive physical processes such as longitudinal and lateral residual flows. The effect of groynes is much more complex because they can modulate channel hydrodynamics and directly affect lateral salinity gradients. In this study, an idealized model is applied to investigate the effects of groyne layouts in estuarine environments, including effects on (1) channel hydrodynamics, (2) lateral water exchange, (3) Coriolis effects, and (4) saltwater intrusion. Model results show that the aspect ratio (the width of groyne fields to the length of groynes) of groyne fields plays an important role. Groynes also induce asymmetry of lateral flows, for example, increasing near-bottom shoal-to-channel flows during low water slack. The aspect ratio has opposite effects on horizontal and vertical components of water exchange. A large aspect ratio strengthens horizontal exchange and weakens density-driven currents. For a large-scale groyne field (several kilometers), Coriolis effects introduce a substantial difference in exchange mechanisms along the north and south banks. A medium range of aspect ratio (2.0-3.0) leads to the strongest saltwater intrusion during both neap and spring tides.

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The Krone–Partheniades (K-P) framework has been used for decades to quantify and analyze the sediment exchange at a water–bed interface. Measuring the erosion and deposition parameters that are part of this framework requires time-consuming field observations. Additionally, the erosion parameters are measured independently of deposition parameters, while in reality they are coupled. In numerical models applying the K-P framework these parameters are often assumed to be constant in time and mutually independent. In this study, we develop a relatively simple methodology to determine the erosion and deposition parameters, using conventional near-bed observations of bed level, sediment concentration and flow velocity. This methodology is subsequently applied to tripod observations collected in the Changjiang estuary, China, to compute continuous time-varying erosion and settling parameters. We propose a diagram to visualize the interdependency and accuracy of erosion and deposition parameters, which is the input for K-P framework models requiring this interdependency@en

Lateral flows redistribute sediment and influence the morphodynamics of channel-shoal systems. However, our understanding of lateral transport of suspended sediment during high and low water slack is still fairly limited, especially in engineered estuaries. Human interventions such as dike-groyne structures influence lateral exchange mechanisms. The present study aims to unravel these mechanisms in a heavily engineered, turbid channel-shoal system in the Changjiang Estuary, using a high-resolution unstructured-grid three-dimensional model and in situ observations. Analysis of model results reveals two typical transport patterns during slack-water conditions, that is, shoal-to-channel transport during low water slack and channel-to-shoal transport during high water slack. A momentum balance analysis is carried out to explain mechanisms driving the lateral transport of suspended sediment during high water slack, revealing the importance of lateral pressure gradients, Coriolis force, and the curvature-induced term. Groyne fields play a crucial role in sediment transport, especially during low water slack. A model scenario in which one groyne is removed reveals that groyne fields strongly influence lateral sediment transport. The decomposition of the sediment transport flux reveals that the turbidity maximum is shaped by a balance between seaward advection by residual flows, and landward transport by tidal pumping and gravitational circulation. Within the turbidity maximum, sediment is laterally redistributed by lateral flows during slack-water conditions, greatly influencing estuarine channel morphology.

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Fluid mud (FM) is a unique sedimentary feature in high-turbidity estuaries, where it can make a rapid contribution to morphodynamics. Insufficient field measurements and fixed-point monitoring lead to deficient understandings of the formation, transport, and breakdown of the FM under extreme weather conditions. A field survey was conducted in the Changjiang Estuary during the period of turbidity maximum, just after Typhoon Haikui. The measurements captured the formation of the FM beneath the suspended layers, particularly around the lower reach of the North Passage. The thickness of the observed FM gradually decreased landward along the channel, with the maximum value reaching ~0.9 m. The major features of the observed storm-induced FM were simulated using the Finite-Volume Community Ocean Model. The results indicated that the initial appearance of the FM was the result of a typhoon-intensified, salinity-induced stratification in the outlet region. The subsequent landward propagation of the FM was driven by the combined effects of the FM-induced mud surface pressure gradient force and saltwater intrusion near the bottom. Weak mixing during the subsequent neap tidal period sustained the FM as it rapidly extended into the middle region of the North Passage. This produced a large velocity shear at the interface of the FM and upper suspension layer, increasing the entrainment from the FM to the upper suspension layer. As a result of the increased tidal mixing, the FM weakened and then finally broke down in the subsequent spring tidal period.

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Lateral flow significantly contributes to the near-bottom mass transport of salinity in a channel-shoal system. In this study, an integrated tripod system was deployed in the transition zone of a channel-shoal system of the Changjiang Estuary (CE), China, to observe the near-bottom physics with high temporal/spatial resolution, particularly focusing on the lateral-flow-induced mass transport. These in situ observations revealed a small-scale salinity fluctuation around low water slack during moderate and spring tidal conditions. A simultaneous strong lateral current was also observed, which was responsible for this small-scale fluctuation. A high-resolution unstructured-grid Finite-Volume Community Ocean Model has been applied for the CE to better understand the mechanism of this lateral flow and its impact on salinity transport. The model results indicate that a significant southward near-bed shoal-to-channel current is generated by the salinity-driven baroclinic pressure gradient. This lateral current affects the salinity transport pattern and the residual current in the cross-channel direction. Cross-channel residual current shows a two-layer structure in the vertical, especially in the intermediate tide when the lateral flow notably occurred. Both observation and model results indicate that near-bottom residual transport of water moved consistently southward (shoal to channel). Mechanisms for this intratidal salinity variation and its implications can be extended to other estuaries with similar channel-shoal features.

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The concentrated benthic suspension (CBS) of mud, as a major contributor of sediment transport in the turbidity maximum of the estuary, is of great challenge to be correctly monitored through field measurements, and its formation mechanism is not well understood. A tripod system equipped with multiple instruments was deployed to measure the near-bed hydrodynamics and sediments in the North Passage of the Changjiang Estuary, with the aim at determining the formation mechanisms of CBS. The measurements detected a significant dominance of high sediment concentration in the near-bed 1-m layer: ~20 g/L at the southern site and ~47 g/L at the northern site. Strong CBS occurred under weak tidal mixing condition, and was directly relevant to the sediment-induced suppression of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) and the enhanced water stratification due to saltwater intrusion and sediment suspension. During the weak-mixing neap period, the typical thickness of CBS was about 0.2-0.3 m, with a life time of ~2.83 hours (SSC> 15.0 g/L). Enhanced water stratification reduced vertical mixing and confined the sediment entrainment from the near-bed layer to the upper column. This enhancement was due to the suppression of TKE as a result of the sediment accumulation in the near-bottom column during the slack water, and also due to the appearance of a two-layer salinity structure in the vertical as a result of saltwater intrusion near the bottom. These physical processes worked as a positive feedback loop during the formation of CBS, and can be simulated with a process-oriented, one-dimensional vertical CBS model.@en