Short-term fecal pollution events are a major challenge for managing microbial safety at recreational waters. Long turn-over times of current laboratory methods for analyzing fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) delay water quality assessments. Data-driven models have been shown to be valuable approaches to enable fast water quality assessments. However, a major barrier towards the wider use of such models is the prevalent data scarcity at existing bathing waters, which questions the representativeness and thus usefulness of such datasets for model training. The present study explores the ability of five data-driven modelling approaches to predict short-term fecal pollution episodes at recreational bathing locations under data scarce situations and imbalanced datasets. The study explicitly focuses on the potential benefits of adopting an innovative modeling and risk-based assessment approach, based on state/cluster-based Bayesian updating of FIB distributions in relation to different hydrological states. The models are benchmarked against commonly applied supervised learning approaches, particularly linear regression, and random forests, as well as to a zero-model which closely resembles the current way of classifying bathing water quality in the European Union. For model-based clustering we apply a non-parametric Bayesian approach based on a Dirichlet Process Mixture Model. The study tests and demonstrates the proposed approaches at three river bathing locations in Germany, known to be influenced by short-term pollution events. At each river two modelling experiments (“longest dry period”, “sequential model training”) are performed to explore how the different modelling approaches react and adapt to scarce and uninformative training data, i.e., datasets that do not include event pollution information in terms of elevated FIB concentrations. We demonstrate that it is especially the proposed Bayesian approaches that are able to raise correct warnings in such situations (> 90 % true positive rate). The zero-model and random forest are shown to be unable to predict contamination episodes if pollution episodes are not present in the training data. Our research shows that the investigated Bayesian approaches reduce the risk of missed pollution events, thereby improving bathing water safety management. Additionally, the approaches provide a transparent solution for setting minimum data quality requirements under various conditions. The proposed approaches open the way for developing data-driven models for bathing water quality prediction against the reality that data scarcity is common problem at existing and prospective bathing waters.

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Global mean sea-level rise (SLR) has accelerated since 1900 from less than 2 mm yr-1 during most of the century to more than 3 mm yr-1 since 1993. Decision-makers in coastal countries, however, require information on SLR at the regional scale, where detection of an acceleration in SLR is difficult, because the long-term sea-level signal is obscured by large inter-annual variations with multi-year trends that are easily one order of magnitude larger than global mean values. Here, we developed a time series approach to determine whether regional SLR is accelerating based on tide gauge data. We applied the approach to eight 100-year records in the southern North Sea and detected, for the first time, a common breakpoint in the early 1990s. The mean SLR rate at the eight stations increases from 1.7 ± 0.3 mm yr-1 before the breakpoint to 2.7 ± 0.4 mm yr-1 after the breakpoint (95% confidence interval), which is unprecedented in the regional instrumental record. These findings are robust provided that the record starts before 1970 and ends after 2015. Our method may be applied to any coastal region with tidal records spanning at least 40 years, which means that vulnerable coastal communities still have time to accumulate the required time series as a basis for adaptation decisions in the second half of this century.

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Water utilities are challenged to reduce their water losses through detecting, localizing, and repairing leaks as quickly as possible in their aging distribution systems. In this work, we solve this challenging problem by detecting multiple leaks simultaneously in a water distribution network for the Battle of the Leak Detection and Isolation Methods. The performance of leak detection and localization depends on how well the system roughness and demand are calibrated. In addition, existing leaks affect the diagnosis performance unless they are identified and explicitly represented in the model. To circumvent this chicken-and-egg dilemma, we decompose the problem into multiple levels of decision-making (a hierarchical approach) where we iteratively improve the water distribution network model and so are able to solve the multileak diagnosis problem. First, a combination of time series and cluster analysis is used on smart meter data to build patterns for demand models. Second, point and interval estimates of pipe roughnesses are retrieved using least squares to calibrate the hydraulic model, utilizing the demand models from the first step. Finally, the calibrated primal model is transformed into a dual model that intrinsically combines sensor data and network hydraulics. This dual model automatically converts small pressure deviations caused by leaks into sharp and localized signals in the form of virtual leak flows. Analytical derivations of sensitivities with respect to these virtual leak flows are calculated and used to estimate the leakage impulse responses at candidate nodes. Subsequently, we use the dual network to (1) detect the start time of the leaks, and (2) compute the Pearson correlation of pressure residuals, which allows further localization of leaks. This novel dual modeling approach resulted in the highest true-positive rates for leak isolation among all participating teams in the competition.

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Socioeconomic characteristics are influencing the temporal and spatial variability of water demand, which are the biggest source of uncertainties within water distribution system modeling. Improving current knowledge of these influences can be utilized to decrease demand uncertainties. This paper aims to link smart water meter data to socioeconomic user characteristics by applying a novel clustering algorithm that uses a dynamic time warping metric on daily demand patterns. The approach is tested on simulated and measured single-family home data sets. It is shown that the novel algorithm performs better compared with commonly used clustering methods, both in finding the right number of clusters as well as assigning patterns correctly. Additionally, the methodology can be used to identify outliers within clusters of demand patterns. Furthermore, this study investigates which socioeconomic characteristics (e.g., employment status and number of residents) are prevalent within single clusters and, consequently, can be linked to the shape of the cluster’s barycenters. In future, the proposed methods in combination with stochastic demand models can be used to fill data gaps in hydraulic models.@en

This study examines the influence of the quality of hydraulic model calibration on the accuracy of model-based leak localization. It is based on a real-world case study where pressures were measured at 12 positions for more than 4 months. Fire flow tests were performed to obtain calibration data—artificially generated leaks with different sizes between 0.25 l/s to 1 l/s at 4 different positions served as dataset for model-based leak localization. Three different calibration approaches were applied on an uncalibrated model generated from GIS data: (i) height adjustments of measurement positions through detailed analysis of long term pressure signals in the leak-free system; as well as (ii) manual trial and error calibration; and (iii) automatic calibration with fire flow test data. The height-adjusted model lead to increased leak localization accuracy compared to the uncalibrated GIS model. However, the most significant improvement was achieved through fire flow test based calibration—revealing a partially closed valve in the system. The auto-calibrated model, which simultaneously calibrated roughness and minor loss coefficients, provided the highest leak localization accuracy.@en