Energy communities are a cornerstone of the European energy transition. Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) exhibit a particularly high potential for energy communities due to their energy demand and flexibility volume. However, in contrast to residential consumers, empirical evidence on SMEs' preferences for participating in renewable energy communities is scarce. This study investigates European SMEs' preferences for local and renewable energy procurement in four countries with a choice experiment. Our sample includes decisions by 823 executives for different energy procurement offers with an energy community approach. In the study, in 67% of the choices, SMEs prefer a renewable energy community offer to their current supply option even without a price premium. Cost is the most important factor in SMEs' energy supply decisions. SMEs have marked preferences for local providers, low administration efforts and high interest in demand-side management and peer-to-peer trading. In contrast, SMEs might reject energy procurement models when major time investments are required, or the provider is an international company. Offers that include local companies or electricity providers and provide smart energy management are most likely to win SMEs' consent. The study recommends orienting the business model design of energy communities towards the specific preferences of corporate consumers to leverage their potential. The results suggest that electricity providers are well-accepted players by SMEs as potential providers of energy community solutions. National implementations of the European policy directive are recommended to take into account the role electricity providers can play in the development and operation of energy communities.@en

In the European energy transition, energy communities have gained an increasing amount of attention. To support widespread diffusion, academic and practice-oriented studies have called for a business model perspective on energy communities. This study presents a morphological analysis of 90 energy communities and pioneering companies that apply business model design options that can be adopted in energy communities. The sample was selected based on implementation examples focusing on community solutions, a multivector energy approach, or a combination of both. Based on this analysis, we have identified 25 emerging business model design options for energy communities. The presented typology allows users to configure tailor-made business models for energy communities, hence supporting community facilitators in the development process. The presented frequency analysis of the design options shows the potential for the further development of energy communities. The typology contributes to the literature on energy communities by offering one of the first studies to adopt a business model perspective. Through a morphological approach, the typology can be used as a tool for developers of energy communities, offering a robust set of business model design options.@en

The increasing convergence of the mobility and electricity sectors creates many opportunities and challenges around electric vehicle (EV) charging. It is a large interest of the industry to gain EV drivers’ consent for smart charging to facilitate the smooth integration of EVs into the electricity grid and maximize the miles driven on renewable power. This study assesses the preferences of potential adopters of smart charging solutions. Employing a choice experiment, this study measures the extent to which and under which conditions EV drivers are willing to adjust the charging location, duration, and charging mode. Based on a sample of 202 current and potential EV drivers, a total of 6′240 experimental decisions for different smart charging offers were analyzed. The results reveal crucial insights into the preference structure of current and potential EV drivers. Based on these findings, this study offers recommendations for providers of smart charging to win early adopters.@en

Flexibility aggregation is seen as a promising solution to facilitate the integration of solar and wind power into the energy system. While the solution is well known, it remains fairly uninvestigated in terms of the components needed to result in a business success. This study investigates the long-term business dynamics of flexibility aggregators with a simulation model. Our study finds that new entrants in flexibility markets are likely to be trapped in a “technology valley of death” situation on account of being “too small to bid”. Therefore, we test different strategies to overcome this critical initial phase. Diversifying revenue streams and introducing a leasing offer for flexible prosumers to enlarge the customer base are promising strategies to reach the relevant bidding size required to compete in balancing power markets. The analysis offers insights on the long-term uncertainties of the business case. The findings of this paper contribute to the discussion on how to develop functioning and robust business models for low-carbon flexibility. Furthermore, the study is of high practical relevance, as one of the burning questions for new entrants in flexibility markets is addressed with a concrete strategy analysis.@en

A prosumer community is a group of households that are organized together to consume energy from a common decentralized generation system such as solar photovoltaic (PV). The development of prosumer communities poses a threat to electric utilities, which currently apply a business model for centralized generation, sales and distribution of electricity. This study uses a System Dynamics simulation approach to analyze the various factors influencing the diffusion of “prosumer communities”, based on a case study in Switzerland, and provides insights into potential business opportunities for electric utilities in managing this transition challenge.@en

Rising shares of fluctuating renewables increase the need for flexibility in the power market. At the same time, the emergence of the prosumer has created new opportunities for co-creation of distributed flexibility. As of yet, there is surprisingly little empirical analysis in terms of whether individuals are actually ready to co-create flexibility, and if so, under which conditions these resources can be mobilized by grid operators or electricity supply companies. We address this gap in the energy economics literature with three studies analyzing in total 7′216 individual decisions in a series of choice experiments with 902 study participants in three main domains of residential energy prosumption: (1) solar PV plus storage, (2) electric mobility, (3) heat pumps. We develop a novel measure of the prosumers’ willingness to co-create flexibility, and solicit their preferences for power supply contracts with varying levels of flexibility to derive implied discomfort costs. Our results indicate that current and potential electric car and solar PV users exhibit a higher willingness to co-create flexibility than heat pump users. Reaping the potential in those two domains requires taking the prosumer perspective into account when designing policy instruments and creating adequate business models.@en

Solar prosumers are about to revolutionize the power sector. Utilities are challenged in recovering the costs of distribution grids, as parts of their revenue basis decreases through self-consumption. Adjusting the grid tariff sets off a reinforcing feedback loop that increases the attractiveness of solar investments, but also leads to a distribution effect between solar prosumers and conventional consumers. The question is: How to recover distribution grid costs equitable without hampering the diffusion of solar power? Can the two criteria be fulfilled at the same time, or is do we aim for squaring a circle? To address this question, I present a System Dynamics simulation model designed to understand the interactions and assess these competing goals. The occurring distribution effect under the volumetric grid tariff with net purchase and sale appears to be rather limited. Simulation experiments reveal that grid tariff designs strongly influence investments for solar power. A capacity tariff can reduce deviations from the cost causation principle of solar prosumers and incentivizes investments in decentralized storage solutions to reduce peak demand. Nevertheless, also the capacity tariff causes a distribution effect.@en

Participative modelling (PM) is a promising approach to mutual learning about causal mechanisms and dynamics in socio-technical transitions. However, case-specific PM initiatives often fail to generate insights that inform related cases. We address this methodical limitation in a case study on the Swiss energy transition. The central question is as follows: How can a PM workshop series be designed to create insights that go beyond the single socio-technical transition case? Based on theorizing literature, we develop a process framework for generic PM based on system dynamics modelling and socio-technical transition frameworks. The framework differentiates the steps in theorizing and explains how to integrate different levels of theorizing into the PM process. We illustrate how we applied the framework in our PM workshop series. Our experiences show that workshop participants employ various conceptual tools (e.g. socio-technical frameworks or causal loop diagrams) to classify and clarify their own experience in general terms.@en

Distributed generation is becoming increasingly important in energy systems, causing a transition towards decentralisation. These decentralisation dynamics are difficult to predict in their scope and timing and therefore present a major challenge for utility companies. This paper aims to make a contribution to the field of energy transitions with a model-based theory-building approach. A conceptual framework of the major (circular) causalities of regional energy systems is presented. It improves the knowledge on transition patterns of distributed generation concepts and the interplaying network effects. Network effects between technologies, the installed base and the investment decision criteria are important elements in the transition dynamics. A System Dynamics simulation model is built, capturing the consumption concepts related to distributed generation, as well as arising network effects, to analyse the likely transition patterns of regional energy systems. Our simulation results highlight the significance of network effects steering the investment decision for distributed generation concepts, pilot projects to accelerate the transition of regional energy systems and the general role of microgrids in the decentralisation dynamics.@en

Renewable energies, especially photovoltaic (PV), have started a trend towards a decentralization of energy systems. With decreasing levelized costs of energy of new renewable energies, self-consumption concepts become increasingly attractive and have even reached grid parity in some countries already. So called "prosumers" (households that are producers and consumers at the same time) start to replace grid consumers, conducting self-consumption with their locally produced electricity by the PV plants. Since complete autarky cannot be reached with a PV plant for a household, prosumers still consume electricity from the main grid. This on-going diffusion of self-consumption concepts is significantly influenced by the interplay of network externalities within the system, such as learning from peers, altering the perceived utility by households of the investment into decentral generation. The increasing penetration of PV significantly contributes to the creation of a more sustainable power supply in Europe and is considered and supported in many nations by governmental energy strategies. Nevertheless, such decentralization dynamics also lead to multiple challenges in the energy system. New investors enter the energy market, utility companies are forced to adjust their business models and grid operators face technical as well as financial challenges. The presented paper focusses on the financial challenges of grid operators caused by decentralization trends of the electricity system.@en

Netznutzungsgebühren dienen der Deckung der Kosten für Aufbau und Erhalt des Stromnetzes. Mit zunehmender Zahl privater PV-Anlagen und Eigenverbrauchslösungen ist die Verteilung dieser Kosten auf die Endkunden nach dem heutigen Tarifmodell aber nicht mehr verursachergerecht. Dementsprechend wird in der Schweiz, wie auch in anderen Ländern, eine Änderung des Tarifmodells erwogen. Hierbei entsteht ein Zielkonflikt: Einerseits leistet das heutige Tarifmodell einen wesentlichen Beitrag zur Wirtschaftlichkeit privater PV-Anlagen mit Eigenverbrauch und damit zur Erreichung der Ausbauziele der Energiestrategie 2050. Andererseits ist eine solche Abweichung von verursachergerechten Netznutzungsgebühren problematisch, weil sie eine Quersubventionierung von privaten PV-Nutzern durch die anderen Stromkunden verursacht und Fehlanreize für Investitionen in Netzinfrastruktur und Speicher setzt. Die diesem White Paper zugrunde liegenden Studien und Daten zeigen, dass mit dem derzeitigen Tarifmodell zwar eine Quersubventionierung vorliegt, deren Umfang in den kommenden Jahren aber überschaubar bleiben dürfte. Dementsprechend liegt mittelfristig vor allem ein Konflikt zwischen dem Ziel des Ausbaus privater PV-Anlagen und dem Ziel des Aufbaus einer effizienten dezentralen Netz- und Speicher-Infrastruktur vor. Beide Aspekte sind wesentlich. Denn die Ausbauziele der Schweiz für erneuerbare Energien sind ambitioniert und nur mit privaten PV-Anlagen realisierbar. Und die Entwicklung der nächsten Jahre in den Bereichen Netze und Speicher kann zu einem mehr oder weniger dezentralen Energiesystem führen. Deshalb können Fehlanreize in diesem Zeitraum leicht zum Aufbau einer ineffizienten Infrastruktur führen. Für beide Aspekte liegt aber noch zu wenig belastbare Evidenz vor, um die Auswirkungen verschiedener Tarifmodelle sicher abschätzen zu können. Daher scheinen folgende Aspekte für die kommenden Jahre zentral: a) Die heutige Diskussion um die Quersubventionierung sollte vermehrt auf den Zielkonflikt zwischen Anreizen für den Ausbau erneuerbarer Energien und Anreizen für effiziente Infrastruktur fokussieren. b) Es sollten Handlungsspielräume für Alternativen zu den heutigen ausschliesslich am Strombezug orientierten Tarifen geschaffen werden, damit neue Ansätze für die Lösung des Zielkonflikts entstehen können. c) Auf regionaler oder kantonaler Ebene könnten neue Ansätze erarbeitet und erprobt werden, die für die Gesetz gebung die notwendige Evidenz zu Auswirkungen alternativer Tarifmodelle liefern.@en

Distributed generation is becoming increasingly important in energy systems, causing a transition of regional energy systems. These decentralisation dynamics are difficult to predict in their scope and timing and therefore become a major challenge for political decision makers, utility companies and technology developers. Network effects are crucial in these decentralisation dynamics, strongly influencing the dominance of the various concepts of distributed energy generation. Network effects emerge between technologies, the installed base of a concept and actor-specific decision criteria. A System Dynamics simulation model is built, capturing the consumer concepts related to distributed generation as well as arising network effects, to analyse likely transition dynamics in regional energy systems. The direct network effects of grid charge adjustment, learning theory and an effect due to density as well as indirect network effect between storage technologies and combined heat and power systems in microgrids are represented in the model. Preliminary simulation results on the transition of the distributed generation concepts are shown and will be analysed in further research on the specific impact of network effects on the transition patterns. This paper aims to make a contribution to the field of energy transitions by translating theories on network effects of the economic literature to the energy systems simulation and by discussing and simulating relevant network effects as relevant drivers of the dissemination of distributed energy generation concepts and the related consumer concepts.@en