This paper proposes a novel train trajectory optimization approach for high-speed railways. We restrict our attention to single train operation scenarios with different scheduled/rescheduled running times aiming at generating optimal train recommended trajectories in real time, which can ensure punctuality and energy efficiency of train operation. A learning-based approach deep deterministic policy gradient (DDPG) is designed to generate optimal train trajectories based on the offline training from the interaction between the agent and the trajectory simulation environment. An allocating running time and selecting operation modes (ARTSOM) algorithm is proposed to improve train punctuality and give a series of discrete operation modes (full traction, cruising, coasting, full braking), and thus to produce a feasible training set for DDPG, which can speed up the training process. Numerical experiments show that an optimized speed profile can be generated by DDPG within seconds on a realistic railway line. In addition, the results demonstrate the generalization ability of trained DDPG in solving TTO problems with different running times and line conditions.

Sn-Ag-x solders were used as the interfacial layers between SnBi solder and Cu substrate. The effects of Sn-Ag-x layers on the solderability, microstructure, and mechanical properties of SnBi solder joint were investigated. Experimental results indicate that all the barrier layers have positive effects on improving the wettability of SnBi solder. The relative area and grain size of β-Sn was enlarged due to the addition of Sn-Ag-x layers. Meanwhile, the addition of the interfacial layers decreased the hardness of the SnBi solder joint. The addition of Sn-Ag-x layers increased the thickness of the interfacial intermetallic compound (IMC) but had limited effects on the shear force of the SnBi solder joint. Due to the addition of the interfacial layers, the brittleness of the SnBi/Cu solder joints during the shear test was slightly suppressed.

The microstructure, shear behaviour and hardness of the SnBi/SACBN/Cu solder joint before and after isothermal ageing were investigated in comparison with the SnBi/Cu and SACBN/Cu solder joints. The experimental results indicated that the pre-soldered SACBN joint had a significant effect on the formation and growth of the β-Sn grains in the SnBi bulk solder. The brittleness of the SnBi/SACBN/Cu composite solder joint was also suppressed and its failure mode transformed from brittle failure to brittle-ductile failure after reflow. However, the shear strength and failure mode of the SnBi/SACBN/Cu composite solder joint became similar to those of the SnBi/Cu joints after 600 h isothermal ageing. The shear strength of the three kinds of solder joints decreased after isothermal ageing, but the SnBi/SACBN/Cu composite solder joint showed higher shear strength than SnBi/Cu did during ageing. The shear strength of the composite solder joint was 67.1MPa after ageing. Due to the diffusion of elements in the isothermal ageing process, the microstructure of the composite solder joint was significantly coarsened after ageing for 600 hours. This phenomenon further led to the decrease of the hardness and shear strength of the three kinds of solder joints.

The effects of porous copper (P-Cu) on the microstructure, hardness, and shear strength of SnBi, SnBi-0.4Ag, and SnBi-1Ag solder joints were investigated in this paper. The experimental results show that P-Cu frames distribute in the solder bulks and form triangular areas. The addition of P-Cu leads to the microstructural refinement in the enclosed areas by the P-Cu frames in the solder bulks. The average hardness here is increased due to the fine grain strengthening mechanism. The SnBi-1Ag@P-Cu solder bulk shows smaller Bi-rich grains but larger β-Sn dendrites than the other two P-Cu-enhanced solder bulks. Porous Cu exists as a frame structure in the solder joints, which hinders the initiation and propagation of cracks and has a positive effect on the improvement of joint strength. Compared to the SnBi and SnBiAg solder joints, the shear strength of the P-Cu-enhanced solder joints is increased by 15%. The average shear strength of the SnBi-0.4Ag@P-Cu solder joint is 79.34 MPa, which is the highest among all the solder joints investigated in this study.