This thesis evaluates the environmental performance of Galactaric Acid (Gal-A) derived from sugar beet pulp (SBP), as a potential eco-friendlier alternative to Chromium(III) and Disodium EDTA in industrial applications. Utilizing a prospective lifecycle assessment, the study forecasts the environmental impacts of Gal-A’s use in the Netherlands by 2030, focusing on its application as a chelating agent (application 1) in shampoo formulations and as a surface coating for zinc-plated steel (application 2).
The data collection to produce Gal-A was conducted using a mass balanced bill of materials provided by Royal Cosun. A combination of literature data and stoichiometric calculations were utilized for other processes within the study. The literature offered insights into the design of value chains and process data, while stoichiometric calculations allowed for the detailed analysis of chemical reactions and compound formations.
The scaling of the Gal-A production foreground in the thesis is informed by input from process technologists at Royal Cosun, ensuring a realistic and industry-informed projection, with attention to the valorization of side streams and internal recycling flows. For the scaling of other processes, literature research plays a crucial role, particularly in understanding the restrictions on chemicals and the development of novel production processes.
The results indicated for application 1, that Gal-A as a chelating agent in shampoo formulations showed mixed results. While it demonstrated advantages in reducing toxicity impacts due to its biodegradability, it also presented trade-offs in eutrophication, soil use, and acidification. These trade-offs are linked to the agricultural origins of the sugar beet pulp and the enzymes used in Gal-A’s production.
The Gal-A-based anti-corrosive coating scored superiorly across all impact categories compared to traditional coatings. The use of Gal-A showed significant environmental benefits, particularly in reducing climate change impacts. However, uncertainties remain regarding the application procedure and the long-term performance of Gal-A as a coating, which necessitates further research.

Through exploratory scenario development, this study delves into the environmental impacts of European commercial aviation. Climate targets and the adoption of alternative aviation fuels (AAF) following ReFuelEU Aviation are assessed, considering e-fuel produced from direct air capture (DAC) and hydrogen aircraft. A novel method is applied, combining the generation of prospective life cycle inventories based on integrated assessment models with technology forecasting, system dynamics, and scenario development. This enables reflection on not only aircraft performance, but also fuel production, aircraft manufacturing, and fleet dynamics. Although there are limitations, including the relatively simple approach to system dynamics and limited data availability, clear conclusions can be drawn. Even for high-growth trajectories of air traffic, the total fuel demand of aviation could stagnate by 2035 under highly ambitious circumstances. Lower air traffic would require less ambitious circumstances. Combined with the reduced impact of AAF on aviation-induced cloudiness modelled here, the radiative forcing associated with aviation could reach a peak by 2050. However, the current scope of ReFuelEU Aviation does not prevent this peak from being eclipsed again by 2070. To prevent this, the mandate for a 70% share of AAF by 2050 should be followed up with a mandate for a 100% share. Thereby, warming neutrality is within reach – provided the necessary technologies can be implemented at scale. Hydrogen propulsion makes more efficient use of resources than e-fuel does, which is relevant for some impact categories, but less so for climate change as assessed here. When considering the magnitude of radiative forcing, present projections fall short. Estimating a budget of CO2 emissions through a grandfathering approach of the targets set by ICAO and IATA, the budget is exceeded by 2070, even with the most optimistic technological advancements. Critical here is the high use of fossil fuel leading up to 2035, for which there are no timely technological solutions. Lacking offsetting opportunities that are reliable, large-scale, and long-term, the only option is to restrict the volume of air traffic. Reducing traffic to 70% of the 2019 passenger-kilometers can be sufficient to respect the CO2 limit, even without optimistic developments in aircraft technology. This challenges conventional narratives, which advocate against demand management, claiming this would limit technological innovation. Thereby, evidence is created in support of the degrowth discourse which has gained momentum in recent decades. To ensure that aviation can provide long-term societal benefits, near-future flight activity must be redistributed to future generations. Given the boundaries and uncertainties of the presented scenarios, a much-needed discussion is encouraged: what share of global environmental limits is aviation – and within that, European aviation – entitled to?