Aquatic biodiversity hotspots often emerge in regions with active tectonism, diverse climate conditions and complex basin configurations enabling episodic biotic isolation and exchange. The Anatolian microcontinent, located between the Mediterranean and Pontocaspian regions, has been considered a cradle of biodiversity for continental aquatic organisms. The Denizli Basin succession of SW Anatolia contains a “Didacna” mollusc fauna that could be the precursor of the modern Pontocaspian mollusc faunas of the Black Sea-Caspian Sea regions. However, the appearance of Pontocaspian faunas in the Denizli Basin and constraints upon their ages and dispersal pathways remain enigmatic. Moreover, the emergence of the Pontocaspian biota far into the Anatolian continental interior raises questions regarding the connectivity history and tectonic evolution of the Anatolian, Aegean and Pontocaspian realms. Here, we present an integrated stratigraphy of the ∼1 km thick succession of the Kolankaya Formation of the Denizli Basin, previously assigned to the Late Miocene. To date the first occurrence of Pontocaspian fauna in the Denizli Basin and to characterise accompanying palaeoenvironmental/palaeohydrological changes, we focus on three sets of approaches: dating (magnetostratigraphy and ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar), biotic record (molluscs, ostracods and dinoflagellates) and hydrological connectivity (O- and C-isotopes and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr). We date the studied section as Early Pleistocene, spanning a time range of 2.6 Ma to 0.7 Ma. During that time, the Denizli Basin hosted an isolated to partially hydrologically open oligo-to mesohaline lake. The biotic record shows a drastic turnover of mollusc fauna from endemic Aegean-Anatolian and Pannonian/Paratethyan to Pontocaspian affinity at ∼1.8 Ma. The palaeogeographic evolution of the region, along with the geographically limited appearance of the Pontocaspian faunas, suggests a dispersal pathway from the Black Sea Basin via the Aegean Basin. Subsequently, a short incursion into the Denizli Basin may have occurred via a series of graben-type basins: either via the Söke-Milet Basin – Büyük Menderes Graben or via Izmir Bay – Gediz Graben. Our study shows that the Denizli Basin was not a cradle but rather a sink of the Pontocaspian biota during the Early Pleistocene. The new Early Pleistocene age assignment for the Pontocaspian fauna and the Kolankaya Formation in Denizli calls for a major reappraisal of models for the tectonic and stratigraphic evolution of SW Anatolia, including the regional interbasinal connectivity history.

The Caspian Sea is an evolutionary island whose rich and endemic fauna have evolved in partial isolation over the past two million years. Baseline studies of pre-20^th Century communities are needed in order to assess the severity of the current Caspian biodiversity crisis, which mostly involves invasive species. An inventory of late Holocene shelly assemblages (c. 2000–2500 cal yr BP) from outcrops in and around Great Turali Lake (Dagestan, Russia) shows a diverse nearshore community consisting of 24 endemic Caspian species, two invasive species and two Caspian native species that lived in a shallow embayment with mesohaline salinities of circa 5–13 psu (parts per thousands). This pre-crisis Holocene Caspian mollusc community serves as a baseline against which modern mollusc diversity measurements can be evaluated. Examination of faunas from similar environments living today and in the past illustrates the dramatic changes in nearshore communities during the 20^th Century. Our study identifies a habitat that may have served as a refuge, but that is currently under threat from invasive species. The severity of the Caspian biodiversity crisis is comparable with other well-known biodiversity crises in semi-isolated ecosystems such as the cichlid fish communities of Lake Victoria, Africa.

Palaeoecological records are required to test ecological hypotheses necessary for conservation strategies as short-term observations can insufficiently capture natural variability and identify drivers of biotic change. Here, we demonstrate the importance of an integrated conservation palaeobiology approach when making validated decisions for conservation and mitigating action. Our model system is the Razim-Sinoie lake complex (RSL) in the Danube Delta (Black Sea coast, Romania), a dynamic coastal lake system hosting unique Pontocaspian mollusc species that are now severely under threat. The Pontocaspians refer to an endemic species group that evolved in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea basins under reduced salinity settings over the past few million years. The natural, pre-industrial RSL contained a salinity gradient from fresh to mesohaline (18ppm) until human intervention reduced the inflow of mesohaline Black Sea water into the lake system. We reconstruct the evolution of the RSL over the past 2000 years from integrated sedimentary facies and faunal analyses based on 11 age-dated sediment cores and investigate the response of mollusc species and communities to those past environmental changes. Three species associations ("marine", "Pontocaspian" and "freshwater") exist and their spatio-temporal shifts through the system are documented. Variable salinity gradients developed, with marine settings (and faunas) dominating in the southern part of the system and freshwater conditions (and faunas) in the northern and western parts. Pontocaspian species have mostly occurred in the centre of the RSL within the marine-freshwater salinity gradient. Today, freshwater species dominate the entire system, and only a single Pontocaspian species (Monodacna colorata) is found alive. We show that the human-induced reduced marine influence in the system has been a major driver of the decline of the endemic Pontocaspian biota. It urges improved conservation action by re-establishing a salinity gradient in the lake system to preserve these unique species.