Water resources managers need to make decisions in a constantly changing environment because the data relating to water resources are uncertain and imprecise. The Robust Optimization and Probabilistic Analysis of Robustness (ROPAR) algorithm is a well-suited tool for dealing with uncertainty. Still, the failure to consider multiple uncertainties and multi-objective robustness hinders the application of the ROPAR algorithm to practical problems. This paper proposes a robust optimization and robustness probabilistic analysis method that considers numerous uncertainties and multi-objective robustness for robust water resources allocation under uncertainty. The copula function is introduced for analyzing the probabilities of different scenarios. The robustness with respect to the two objective functions is analyzed separately, and the Pareto frontier of robustness is generated. The relationship between the robustness with respect to the two objective functions is used to evaluate water resources management strategies. Use of the method is illustrated in a case study of water resources allocation in the Huaihe River basin. The results demonstrate that the method opens a possibility for water managers to make more informed uncertainty-aware decisions.@en

While drought impacts are widespread across the globe, climate change projections indicate more frequent and severe droughts. This underscores the pressing need to increase resistance and resilience to drought. The strategic application of Preventive Drought Management Measures (PDMMs) is a suitable avenue to reduce the likelihood of drought and ameliorate associated damages. In this study, we use an optimisation approach with a multicriteria decision-making method to allocate PDMMs for reducing the severity of agricultural and hydrological droughts. The results indicate that implementing PDMMs can reduce the severity of agricultural and hydrological droughts, and the obtained management scenarios (solutions) highlight the utility of multi-objective optimisation for PDMMs planning. However, examined management scenarios also illustrate the trade-off between managing agricultural and hydrological droughts. PDMMs can alleviate the severity of agricultural droughts while producing opposite effects for hydrological droughts (or vice versa). Furthermore, the impact of PDMMs displays temporal and spatial variabilities. For instance, PDMMs implementation within a specific subbasin may mitigate the severity of one type of drought in a given month yet exacerbate drought conditions in preceding or subsequent months. In the case of hydrological droughts, the PDMMs may intensify streamflow deficits in the intervened subbasins while alleviating the hydrological drought severity downstream (or vice versa). These complexities emphasise a customised implementation of PDMMs, considering the basin characteristics (e.g., rainfall distribution over the year, soil properties, land use, and topography) and the quantification of PDMMs' effect on the severity of each type of drought.

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In its three-dimensional (3-D) characterization, drought is an event whose spatial extent changes over time. Each drought event has an onset and end time, a location, a magnitude, and a spatial trajectory. These characteristics help to analyze and describe how drought develops in space and time (i.e., drought dynamics). Methodologies for 3-D characterization of drought include a 3-D clustering technique to extract the drought events from the hydrometeorological data. The application of the clustering method yields small artifact droughts. These small clusters are removed from the analysis with the use of a cluster size filter. However, according to the literature, the filter parameters are usually set arbitrarily, so this study concentrated on a method to calculate the optimal cluster size filter for the 3-D characterization of drought. The effect of different drought indicator thresholds to calculate drought is also analyzed. The approach was tested in South America with data from the Latin American Flood and Drought Monitor for 1950–2017. Analysis of the spatial trajectories and characteristics of the most extreme droughts is also included. Calculated droughts are compared with information reported at a country scale and a reasonably good match is found.@en

In recent years, there has been a surge of interest in machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) due to the effectiveness of deep learning algorithms and the increasing availability of large data sets. This chapter provides a brief overview of the applications of AI and ML techniques in hydroinformatics, a field that deals with advanced information technology, data analytics, and modeling for aquatic environment management. Data-driven models are becoming more common in water management as they can reveal hidden patterns in data and offer improved accuracy in certain situations. This chapter highlights the importance of spatiotemporal data analysis, pattern recognition, and optimization approaches in water resources management under uncertainty. It does not offer a comprehensive review of all methods but rather focuses on selected ML techniques widely used in water-related problems. Additionally, the chapter discusses the challenges associated with using ML models, such as black-box criticisms, and the potential of hybrid models that combine the strengths of ML and physically based process models for more robust solutions in hydroinformatics.@en

Kazakhstan is recently experiencing an increase in drought trends. However, low-capacity probabilistic drought forecasts and poor dissemination have led to a drought crisis in 2021 that resulted in the loss of thousands of livestock. To improve drought forecasting accuracy, this study applies Machine Learning and Deep Learning (ML and DL) algorithms to capture the sequences of drought events using a non-contiguous drought analysis (NCDA). Precipitation, 2-m temperature, runoff, solar radiation, relative humidity, and evaporation were collected from the ERA5 database as input variables. Combinations of inputs were used to build ML models, including seven classifiers (Logistic, K-NN, Kernel SVM, Decision Tree, Random Forest, XGBoost, and GRU). The output events were defined by standardized precipitation index (SPI) and SPEI indicators as binary classes. Weekly time series from 1991 to 2021 for each cell were used to forecast a lead time from 1 week to 6 months. GRU provided 97–99% accuracy in more volatile regions while Random Forest and XGBoost showed 94–99% accuracy at a lead time of 6 months. The accuracy evaluation was based on the confusion matrix and F1 score to analyze the stage change capture. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of using ML and DL algorithms for drought forecasting, with potential applications for other regions.

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Aquatic community dynamics are closely dominated by flow regime and water quality conditions, which are increasingly threatened by dam regulation, water diversion, and nutrition pollution. However, further understanding of the ecological impacts of flow regime and water quality conditions on aquatic multi-population dynamics has rarely been integrated into existing ecological models. To address this issue, a new niche-based metacommunity dynamics model (MDM) is proposed. The MDM aims to simulate the coevolution processes of multiple populations under changing abiotic environments, pioneeringly applied to the mid-lower Han River, China. The quantile regression method was used for the first time to derive ecological niches and competition coefficients of the MDM, which are demonstrated to be reasonable by comparing them with the empirical evidence. Simulation results show that the Nash efficiency coefficients for fish, zooplankton, zoobenthos, and macrophytes are more than 0.64, while the Pearson correlation coefficients for them are no less than 0.71. Overall, the MDM performs effectively in simulating metacommunity dynamics. For all river stations, the average contributions of biological interaction, flow regime effects, and water quality effects to multi-population dynamics are 64%, 21%, and 15%, respectively, suggesting that the population dynamics are dominated by biological interaction. For upstream stations, the fish population is 8%–22% more responsive to flow regime alteration than other populations, while other populations are 9%–26% more responsive to changes in water quality conditions than fish. For downstream stations, flow regime effects on each population account for less than 1% due to more stable hydrological conditions. The innovative contribution of this study lies in proposing a multi-population model to quantify the effects of flow regime and water quality on aquatic community dynamics by incorporating multiple indicators of water quantity, water quality, and biomass. This work has potential for the ecological restoration of rivers at the ecosystem level. This study also highlights the importance of considering threshold and tipping point issues when analyzing the “water quantity-water quality-aquatic ecology” nexus in future works.

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Preventive Drought Management Measures (PDMMs) aim to reduce the chance of droughts and minimize drought-associated damages. Selecting PDMMs is not a trivial task, and it can be asserted that actual contributions to drought alleviation still need to be adequately researched. This study evaluates the effects of three potential PDMMs, namely, rainwater harvesting ponds, forest conservation, and check dams, on agricultural and hydrological drought severity. The Soil Water Assessment Tool is used for hydrological modeling and representing PDMMs. The threshold level method is applied to analyze droughts and evaluate the impact of PDMMs on drought severity. Findings show that rainwater harvesting ponds applied on agricultural land reduce the severity of agricultural droughts and hydrological droughts, particularly during the first months of the drought events observed in the rainy season. Results also reveal that forest conservation contributes to reducing the severity of hydrological droughts by up to 90%. Finally, check dams and ponds in upstream subbasins considerably reduce agricultural and hydrological drought severity in the areas where the structures are applied; however, they exacerbate drought severity downstream. The analysis was developed in the Torola River Basin (El Salvador) for the period spanning 2004 to 2018.@en

The typical drivers of drought events are lower than normal precipitation and/or higher than normal evaporation. The region's characteristics may enhance or alleviate the severity of these events. Evaluating the combined effect of the multiple factors influencing droughts requires innovative approaches. This study applies hydrological modelling and a machine learning tool to assess the relationship between hydroclimatic characteristics and the severity of agricultural and hydrological droughts. The Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is used for hydrological modelling. Model outputs, soil moisture and streamflow, are used to calculate two drought indices, namely the Soil Moisture Deficit Index and the Standardized Streamflow Index. Then, drought indices are utilised to identify the agricultural and hydrological drought events during the analysis period, and the index categories are employed to describe their severity. Finally, the multivariate regression tree technique is applied to assess the relationship between hydroclimatic characteristics and the severity of agricultural and hydrological droughts.

Our research indicates that multiple parameters influence the severity of agricultural and hydrological droughts in the Cesar River basin. The upper part of the river valley is very susceptible to agricultural and hydrological drought. Precipitation shortfalls and high potential evapotranspiration drive severe agricultural drought, whereas limited precipitation influences severe hydrological drought. In the middle part of the river, inadequate rainfall partitioning and an unbalanced water cycle that favours water loss through evapotranspiration and limits percolation cause severe agricultural and hydrological drought conditions. Finally, droughts are moderate in the basin's southern part (Zapatosa marsh and the Serranía del Perijá foothills). Moderate sensitivity to agricultural and hydrological droughts is related to the capacity of the subbasins to retain water, which lowers evapotranspiration losses and promotes percolation. Results show that the presented methodology, combining hydrological modelling and a machine learning tool, provides valuable information about the interplay between the hydroclimatic factors that influence drought severity in the Cesar River basin.@en

This research paper presents a systematic literature review on the use of remotely sensed and/or global datasets in distributed hydrological modelling. The study aims to investigate the most commonly used datasets in hydrological models and their performance across different geographical scales of catchments, including the micro-scale (<10 km²), meso-scale (10 km²–1000 km²), and macro-scale (>1000 km²). The analysis included a search for the relation between the use of these datasets to different regions and the geographical scale at which they are most widely used. Additionally, co-authorship analysis was performed on the articles to identify the collaboration patterns among researchers. The study further categorized the analysis based on the type of datasets, including rainfall, digital elevation model, land use, soil distribution, leaf area index, snow-covered area, evapotranspiration, soil moisture and temperature. The research concluded by identifying knowledge gaps in the use of each data type at different scales and highlighted the varying performance of datasets across different locations. The findings underscore the importance of selecting the right datasets, which has a significant impact on the accuracy of hydrological models. This study provides valuable insights into the use of remote sensed and/or global datasets in hydrological modelling, and the identified knowledge gaps can inform future research directions.

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Water utilities are urged to decrease their real water losses, not only to reduce costs but also to assure long-term sustainability. Hardware- and software-based techniques have been broadly used to locate leaks; within the latter, previous works that have used data-driven models mostly focused on single leaks. This paper presents a methodology to locate multiple leaks in water distribution networks employing pressure residuals. It consists of two phases: one is to produce training data for the data-driven model and cluster the nodes based on their leak-flow-rate-independent signatures using an adapted hierarchical agglomerative algorithm; the second is to locate the leaks using a top-down approach. To identify the leaking clusters and nodes, we employed a custom-built k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) algorithm that compares the test instances with the generated training data. This instance-to-instance comparison requires substantial computational resources for classification, which was overcome by the use of high-performance computing. The methodology was applied to a real network located in a European town, comprising 144 nodes and a total length of pipes of 24 km. Although its multiple inlets add redundancy to the network increasing the challenge of leak location, the method proved to obtain acceptable results to guide the field pinpointing activities. Nearly 70% of the areas determined by the clusters were identified with an accuracy of over 90% for leak flows above 3.0 L/s, and the leaking nodes were accurately detected over 50% of the time for leak flows above 4.0 L/s.

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Successful modelling of the groundwater level variations in hydrogeological systems in complex formations considerably depends on spatial and temporal data availability and knowledge of the boundary conditions. Geostatistics plays an important role in model-related data analysis and preparation, but has specific limitations when the aquifer system is inhomogeneous. This study combines geostatistics with machine learning approaches to solve problems in complex aquifer systems. Herein, the emphasis is given to cases where the available dataset is large and randomly distributed in the different aquifer types of the hydrogeological system. Self-Organizing Maps can be applied to identify locally similar input data, to substitute the usually uncertain correlation length of the variogram model that estimates the correlated neighborhood, and then by means of Transgaussian Kriging to estimate the bias corrected spatial distribution of groundwater level. The proposed methodology was tested on a large dataset of groundwater level data in a complex hydrogeological area. The obtained results have shown a significant improvement compared to the ones obtained by classical geostatistical approaches.

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The World Health Organization (WHO) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) provide guidelines on the maximum levels of nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) contained in drinking water since excess nitrate ingestion may harm human health. Thus, monitoring and controlling the NO3-N concentration is of paramount importance, especially in sources of drinking water such as the Nakdong River in South Korea. This study addresses NO3-N pollution in the Nakdong River in South Korea, where such pollution mostly comes from diffuse sources in the catchment due to the agricultural use of fertilizers. The objective of this study is to suggest guidelines for designing strategies to control NO3-N in this river using a process-based model developed with HEC-RAS. The model was built based on water quality parameters (water temperature, dissolved oxygen, ammonia nitrogen, etc.) related to NO3-N dynamics incorporating hydraulic and meteorological data. This model simulated NO3-N dynamics downstream under 55 scenarios while focusing on a section near locations of drinking water intakes. The scenarios were constructed based on variations in water quantity and quality upstream. The simulation results showed that the peak concentration of NO3-N downstream could be directly controlled by limiting the NO3-N concentration upstream. Additionally, control of the flow rate upstream could also lead to a reduction in the overall average concentration of NO3-N downstream, but this predominantly occurred when the NO3-N concentration was decreasing. In conclusion, the design and implementation of strategies for the control of NO3-N downstream should be carried out after performing a quantitative analysis of the impact of different control measures for different downstream conditions using a water quality model. @en

This chapter provides an overview of global and low-cost topographic data to support flood studies, with a focus on usefulness of shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM) topography in supporting two-dimensional hydraulic modeling of floods. In particular, flood propagation and inundation modeling of a 10-km reach of the River Dee (United Kingdom) was performed by using LISFLOOD-FP to simulate the December 2006 flood event. Flood extent maps from satellite imagery (ERS-2 Synthetic Aperture Radar SAR) and hydrometric information (downstream water levels) were used as evaluation data. Uncertainty analysis was carried out within the generalized likelihood uncertainty estimation framework using the roughness coefficients and downstream water surface slope as free parameters. The results of this study showed: (1) the potentials and limitations of SRTM topographic data in flood inundation modeling; (2) the value of downstream water levels in constraining uncertainty in hydraulic model of floods; and (3) the impact of setting a water surface slope as downstream boundary on the results of the hydraulic model (e.g., predictions of water stages and flood extent).

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Extreme peak runoff forecasting is still a challenge in hydrology. In fact, the use of traditional physically-based models is limited by the lack of sufficient data and the complexity of the inner hydrological processes. Here, we employ a Machine Learning technique, the Random Forest (RF) together with a combination of Feature Engineering (FE) strategies for adding physical knowledge to RF models and improving their forecasting performances. The FE strategies include precipitation-event classification according to hydrometeorological criteria and separation of flows into baseflow and directflow. We used ∼ 3.5 years of hourly precipitation information retrieved from two near-real-time satellite precipitation databases (PERSIANN-CCS and IMERG-ER), and runoff data at the outlet of a 3391-km² basin located in the tropical Andes of Ecuador. The developed models obtained Nash-Sutcliffe efficiencies varying from 0.86 to 0.59 for lead times between 1 and 6 h. The best performances were obtained for peak runoffs triggered by short-extension precipitation events (<50 km²) where infiltration- or saturation-excess runoff responses are well learned by the RF models. Conversely, the forecasting difficulty is associated with extensive precipitation events. For such conditions, a deeper characterization of the biophysical characteristics of the basin is encouraged for capturing the dynamic of directflow across multiple runoff responses. All in all, the potential to employ near-real-time satellite precipitation and the use of FE strategies for improving RF forecasting provides hydrologists with new tools for real-time runoff forecasting in remote or complex regions.

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Flow control flushing water from reservoirs has been imposed in South Korea for mitigating harmful cyanobacterial blooms (CyanoHABs) in rivers. This measure, however, can cause water shortage in reservoirs, as the measure adopting this flow control may require an additional amount of water which exceeds the water demand allocated to the reservoirs. In terms of sustainability, a trade-off between improving water quality and alleviating water shortage needs to be considered. This study aimed at establishing a practical framework for a decision support system for optimal joint operation of the upstream reservoirs (Andong and Imha) to reduce the frequency of CyanoHABs in the Nakdong River, South Korea. Methodologically, three models were introduced: (1) a machine learning model (accuracy 88%) based on the k-NN (k-Nearest Neighbor) algorithm to predict the occurrence of CyanoHABs at a selected downstream location (the Chilgok Weir located approximately 140 km downstream from the Andong Dam), (2) a multiobjective optimization model employing NSGA-II (Nondominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II) to determine both the quantity and quality of water released from the reservoirs, and (3) a river water quality model (R2 0.79) using HEC-RAS to simulate the water quality parameter at Chilgok Weir according to given upstream boundary conditions. The applicability of the framework was demonstrated by simulation results using observational data from 2015 to 2019. The simulation results based on the framework confirmed that the frequency of CyanoHABs would be decreased compared with the number of days when CyanoHABs were observed at Chilgok Weir. This framework, with a combination of several models, is a novelty in terms of efficiency, and it can be a part of a solution to the problem of CyanoHABs without using an additional amount of water from a reservoir.@en

Cyanobacterial blooms appear by complex causes such as water quality, climate, and hydrological factors. This study aims to present the machine learning models to predict occurrences of these complicated cyanobacterial blooms efficiently and effectively. The dataset was classified into groups consisting of two, three, or four classes based on cyanobacterial cell density after a week, which was used as the target variable. We developed 96 machine learning models for Chilgok weir using four classification algorithms: k-Nearest Neighbor, Decision Tree, Logistic Regression, and Support Vector Machine. In the modeling methodology, we first selected input features by applying ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) and solving a multi-collinearity problem as a process of feature selection, which is a method of removing irrelevant features to a target variable. Next, we adopted an oversampling method to resolve the problem of having an imbalanced dataset. Consequently, the best performance was achieved for models using datasets divided into two classes, with an accuracy of 80% or more. Comparatively, we confirmed low accuracy of approximately 60% for models using datasets divided into three classes. Moreover, while we produced models with overall high accuracy when using logCyano (logarithm of cyanobacterial cell density) as a feature, several models in combination with air temperature and NO3-N (nitrate nitrogen) using two classes also demonstrated more than 80% accuracy. It can be concluded that it is possible to develop very accurate classification-based machine learning models with two features related to cyanobacterial blooms. This proved that we could make efficient and effective models with a low number of inputs.@en

Machine learning (ML) applications in Earth and environmental sciences (EES) have gained incredible momentum in recent years. However, these ML applications have largely evolved in ‘isolation’ from the mechanistic, process-based modelling (PBM) paradigms, which have historically been the cornerstone of scientific discovery and policy support. In this perspective, we assert that the cultural barriers between the ML and PBM communities limit the potential of ML, and even its ‘hybridization’ with PBM, for EES applications. Fundamental, but often ignored, differences between ML and PBM are discussed as well as their strengths and weaknesses in light of three overarching modelling objectives in EES, (1) nowcasting and prediction, (2) scenario analysis, and (3) diagnostic learning. The paper ponders over a ‘coevolutionary’ approach to model building, shifting away from a borrowing to a co-creation culture, to develop a generation of models that leverage the unique strengths of ML such as scalability to big data and high-dimensional mapping, while remaining faithful to process-based knowledge base and principles of model explainability and interpretability, and therefore, falsifiability.

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This chapter aims to describe the latest innovative approaches for integrating heterogeneous observations from static social sensors within hydrological and hydrodynamic modelling to improve flood prediction. The distinctive characteristic of such sensors, with respect to the traditional ones, is their varying lifespan and space-time coverage as well as their spatial distribution. The main part of the chapter is dedicated to the optimal assimilation of heterogeneous intermittent data within hydrological and hydraulic models. These approaches are designed to account for the intrinsic uncertainty contained into hydrological observations and model structure, states and parameters. Two case studies, the Brue and Bacchiglione catchments, are considered. Finally, the evaluation of the developed methods is provided. This study demonstrates that networks of low-cost static and dynamic social sensors can complement traditional networks of static physical sensors, for the purpose of improving flood forecasting accuracy. This can be a potential application of recent efforts to build citizen observatories of water, in which citizens not only can play an active role in information capturing, evaluation and communication but also can help improve models and increase flood resilience.

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A significant decrease in annual runoff (AR) in the headwater region of Yellow River, China, has been observed during the past decades, which produces a recognized impact on long-term water resources management and planning. In this paper, the Pettitt method and Sequential Clustering method are used to detect the change point of AR and annual precipitation (AP) series. On the basis of the change point, the whole observed period is divided into two periods, before-point (Period I) and after-point period (Period II). The distribution characteristic of occurrence number of given extreme AP and AR and the relationship between the AP and AR in the two periods are analyzed. Then, the impact of AP change on the design AR is quantified. The results indicate that the AP and AR has a change point at the location of 1989.The distribution of occurrence number of given AP with more than 500 mm and AR with more than 150 mm in Period I is clearly different than that in Period II as well as the AP-AR relationship. The quantiles of AP and AR with the given non-exceedance probabilities of 0.8, 0.9, 0.95, 0.98, 0.99, 0.995, 0.998 and 0.999 in Period I decrease significantly compared to those in Period II. The AP decrease accounts for 53, 53, 54, 57, 60, 62, 66 and 68% of the total decrease in AR at the level of quantile with respect to the given eight non-exceedance probabilities from 0.8 to 0.999. Overall, the decrease in the AR quantile is mainly caused by the decrease in AP change.

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With more machine learning methods being involved in social and environmental research activities, we are addressing the role of available information for model training in model performance. We tested the abilities of several machine learning models for short-term hydrological forecasting by inferring linkages with all available predictors or only with those pre-selected by a hydrologist. The models used in this study were multivariate linear regression, the M5 model tree, multilayer perceptron (MLP) artificial neural network, and the long short-term memory (LSTM) model. We used two river catchments in contrasting runoff generation conditions to try to infer the ability of different model structures to automatically select the best predictor set from all those available in the dataset and compared models’ performance with that of a model operating on predictors prescribed by a hydrologist. Additionally, we tested how shuffling of the initial dataset improved model performance. We can conclude that in rainfall-driven catchments, the models performed generally better on a dataset prescribed by a hydrologist, while in mixed-snowmelt and baseflow-driven catchments, the automatic selection of predictors was preferable.

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