Using industrial waste in controlled low-strength material (CLSM) offers many benefits and addresses waste management issues. However, identifying optimal CLSM design while balancing environmental impacts and engineering properties poses a notable challenge. Herein, new alkali-activated CLSM formulations based on urban waste glass and red mud (RM) are proposed for the first time with systematic investigations into the material properties and sustainability. The formulations involve the ternary blends of slag, glass powder (GP) and RM as the binders and crushed glass as aggregate. Our observations show RM has a clay-like texture with complex crystalline phases rich in Al and Fe. Increasing the proportion of RM to GP notably decreases the flowability, extends the setting time and impairs the mechanical properties. Nevertheless, red mud demonstrates a crucial role of reducing bleeding level especially for the mixtures with high proportions of glass aggregate. The standard leachate tests as per toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) show the heavy metals leached from the CLSM are below the concentration limits and exhibit low mobility. The microstructural and thermodynamic analyses reveal the precipitation of calcium-(sodium-)aluminosilicate hydrate (C-(N-)A-S-H) as the major binding material. The reactive Fe and Al in red mud most probably contribute to the formation of hydrogarnet phases. Moreover, the suggested CLSM formations typically exhibit reduced carbon emissions and lower costs compared to the traditional CLSM produced with cement and fly ash, underlining their environmental sustainability and cost-effectiveness. This study provides a potential guideline for the flowable fill construction in the regions with bauxite producers.

The proper control of the rheological performance of silicate-based alkali-activated slag (AAS) mixtures is problematic, as the conventional superplasticizers become less effective in alkaline media. Nevertheless, several methods have been proposed to improve the workability of silicate-activated AAS, such as by extending the mixing time, and replacing sodium silicate with sodium carbonate activators. However, the underlying fluidizing mechanism is not yet well understood in the literature, which is crucial knowledge to achieve proper rheology control of silicate-activated AAS. In this study, the effects of mixing conditions and activator anionic species on the rheology of silicate-activated AAS concrete have been assessed. The reaction products, particle size and interparticle interactions, as well as the reaction kinetics in AAS, have been further investigated to understand the distinct fluidizing mechanisms. By using a longer mixing time, it was found that the solid particles formed at early ages are broken down into smaller particles, accompanied by a slight increase in the amount of reaction products to improve the fluidity. With the sodium carbonate substitution, the calcium ions dissolved from slag particles are entrapped into calcium carbonate precipitates to slow down the accumulation of C-(A)-S-H phases, leading to a better dynamic flow. However, the interparticle interactions are intensified due to the formation of larger particles and the declined dispersing effect induced by silicate activators.

This study provides a detailed investigation on the reproducibility of two groups of alkali-activated slag (AAS) mixtures, from both fresh properties and strength development perspectives. Three different commercial sodium silicate solutions and one lab-produced silicate activator (made of silica fume and sodium hydroxide) were used to prepare AAS pastes with the same nominal composition in each group. The reaction process of each AAS mixture was monitored by calorimetry and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) measurements. Meanwhile, mini-slump and flow curve tests measured by rheometer were conducted in the first hour to characterize the evolution of fresh properties. The compressive and flexural strength of hardened AAS mortars were measured at different curing ages. The results revealed that AAS pastes prepared with three different sodium silicate solutions exhibited almost identical reaction kinetics, as well as the evolution of fresh properties and strength development. However, the reaction took place rather fast in AAS pastes made of silica fume. These mixtures showed worse rheology and less strength than the corresponding mixtures prepared with sodium silicate solutions. Furthermore, the present study also showed the feasibility of making the same AAS paste through different class commercial sodium silicate solutions.

A two-dimensional (2D) image-based methodology was proposed to measure the specific surface area (SSA, specified as the surface area per unit volume) of irregular aggregate by random sectioning. Conventional methods including spherical assumption, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and computed tomography (CT) tests were used and compared in this study. Results show that spherical assumption provides the lowest SSA among these methods since the feature of anisotropy in dimension is not considered. SSA by BET test has one order of magnitude higher value than others, which is attributed to the fact that BET method measures each position of particles that nitrogen molecule can be adsorbed on during the applied relative pressure, based on the ‘pixel’ of nitrogen molecule. The proposed random sectioning method presents very similar SSA result compared to CT method, indicating that it can be considered as a reliable method. To improve the estimation of SSA by random sectioning method, factors that may influence SSA result were analyzed. Results indicate that the number of samples should be high enough to reach a constant result and the thresholding algorithm should be adequate. Besides, a higher resolution of pixel provides a higher SSA value. The comparison among these methods demonstrate that it is necessary to determine the scale at which the features of the surface are supposed to be captured before selecting the optimal testing method.