Human feces from urine diverting dry toilets can serve as valuable soil conditioners. For a successful agricultural application, an efficient pathogen reduction needs to be ensured, with no negative effects on plants. This study assessed the efficiency of lacto-fermentation combined with thermophilic composting on pathogen removal from human feces and the post-treatment effects on germination and growth of radish (Raphanus sativus) and tomatoes (Lycopersicum esculentum) compared to lacto-fermentation combined with vermi-composting and the control. The NH₄ ⁺-N/NO₃ ⁻-N ratio of 3.0 and 3.6, respectively, suggested the obtained compost and vermi-compost was not yet mature. A complete reduction in the concentration of all investigated bacterial indicators (i.e., coliforms, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, and Clostridium perfringens) from 5–7 log CFU g⁻¹ to below detection limit (<3 log CFU g⁻¹) was achieved after lacto-fermentation combined with thermophilic composting. Lacto-fermentation combined with vermi-composting also contributed to pathogen die-off, but coliform bacteria were reduced to only 5 log CFU g⁻¹. Fertilization of seeds of radish by compost obtained after lacto-fermentation combined with thermophilic composting led to a higher germination index than by the vermicast obtained by lacto-fermentation and vermi-composting (90% versus 84%). Moreover, significantly bigger average fruit weight and total biomass per tomato plant (p < 0.05) were obtained after compost amendment compared to vermicast or the control.

Resource oriented sanitation has emerged as a need to improve the efficacy of excreta treatment schemes, reduce the environmental pollution from their disposal and improve soil fertility. In urine diverting dry toilets, the storage alone is inefficient for faeces treatment due to poor hygienization, incomplete decomposition, as well as high losses of organic matter and nutrients. The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of stored faeces and bio-waste treated via lactic acid fermentation and supplemented by urine charged biochar on the growth and yield of corn as well as on the soil quality in a two year field experiment. Lacto-fermentation of faeces and bio-waste was performed under microaerobic conditions in earth pits covered with plastic foil, by the addition of microbial innoculum and molasses. The fertilizer was compared to an unfertilized control, a lacto-fermented mix (faeces, bio-waste, molasses and microbial innoculum) without biochar, stored faeces, cattle manure, urine and mineral fertilizer. In addition, during the second year, a vermi-composted lacto-fermented mix and biochar was applied as well. Differences of means among the treatments concerning corn growth parameters, yield and soil quality were evaluated using the Dunnet test of multiple comparisons. The lacto-fermented mix supplemented by biochar significantly improved plant height (p < 0.05 and confidence interval CI with both negative values) compared to all fertilizers during the first production year and compared to the control, stored faeces and vermicompost during the second year. This fertilizer also achieved a significantly higher corn yield compared to all other fertilizers during first and second production year, except for the lacto-fermented mix without biochar and the mineral fertilizer, which showed no significant yield difference (p > 0.05, CI with both positive and negative values). The bulk density was reduced during both years while the soil potassium content increased only during the first production year.

Aims: To determine the magnitude of microbial risks from waterborne viruses and bacteria in Bwaise III in Kampala (Uganda), a typical slum in Sub-Saharan Africa. Methods and Results: A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was carried out to determine the magnitude of microbial risks from waterborne pathogens through various exposure pathways in Bwaise III in Kampala (Uganda). This was based on the concentration of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., rotavirus (RV) and human adenoviruses F and G (HAdV) in spring water, tap water, surface water, grey water and contaminated soil samples. The total disease burden was 680 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) per 1000 persons per year. The highest disease burden contribution was caused by exposure to surface water open drainage channels (39%) followed by exposure to grey water in tertiary drains (24%), storage containers (22%), unprotected springs (8%), contaminated soil (7%) and tap water (0·02%). The highest percentage of the mean estimated infections was caused by E. coli O157:H7 (41%) followed by HAdV (32%), RV (20%) and Salmonella spp. (7%). In addition, the highest infection risk was 1 caused by HAdV in surface water at the slum outlet, while the lowest infection risk was 2·71 × 10^-6 caused by E. coli O157:H7 in tap water. Conclusions: The results show that the slum environment is polluted, and the disease burden from each of the exposure routes in Bwaise III slum, with the exception of tap water, was much higher than the WHO reference level of tolerable risk of 1 × 10^-6 DALYs per person per year. Significance and Impact of the Study: The findings of this study provide guidance to governments, local authorities and nongovernment organizations in making decisions on measures to reduce infection risk and the disease burden by 10² to 10⁵ depending on the source of exposure to achieve the desired health impacts. The infection risk may be reduced by sustainable management of human excreta and grey water, coupled with risk communication during hygiene awareness campaigns at household and community level. The data also provide a basis to make strategic investments to improve sanitary conditions in urban slums.

Decentralised grey water treatment in urban slums using low-cost and robust technologies offers opportunities to minimise public health risks and to reduce environmental pollution caused by the highly polluted grey water i.e. with a COD and N concentration of 3000-6000mgL^-1 and 30-40mgL^-1, respectively. However, there has been very limited action research to reduce the pollution load from uncontrolled grey water discharge by households in urban slums. This study was therefore carried out to investigate the potential of a two-step filtration process to reduce the grey water pollution load in an urban slum using a crushed lava rock filter, to determine the main filter design and operation parameters and the effect of intermittent flow on the grey water effluent quality. A two-step crushed lava rock filter unit was designed and implemented for use by a household in the Bwaise III slum in Kampala city (Uganda). It was monitored at a varying hydraulic loading rate (HLR) of 0.5-1.1md^-1 as well as at a constant HLR of 0.39md^-1. The removal efficiencies of COD, TP and TKN were, respectively, 85.9%, 58% and 65.5% under a varying HLR and 90.5%, 59.5% and 69%, when operating at a constant HLR regime. In addition, the log removal of Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. and total coliforms was, respectively, 3.8, 3.2 and 3.9 under the varying HLR and 3.9, 3.5 and 3.9 at a constant HLR. The results show that the use of a two-step filtration process as well as a lower constant HLR increased the pollutant removal efficiencies. Further research is needed to investigate the feasibility of adding a tertiary treatment step to increase the nutrients and microorganisms removal from grey water.

Two uPVC columns (outer diameter 160cm, internal diameter 14.6cm and length 100cm) were operated in parallel and in series to simulate grey water treatment by media based filtration at unsaturated conditions and constant hydraulic loading rates (HLR). Grey water from bathroom, laundry and kitchen activities was collected from 10 households in the Bwaise III slum in Kampala (Uganda) in separate containers, mixed in equal proportions followed by settling, prior to transferring the influent to the tanks. Column 1 was packed with lava rock to a depth of 60cm, while column 2 was packed with lava rock (bottom 30cm) and silica sand, which was later replaced by granular activated carbon (top 30cm) to further investigate nutrient removal from grey water. Operating the two filter columns in series at a HLR of 20cm/day resulted in a better effluent quality than at a higher (40cm/day) HLR. The COD removal efficiencies by filter columns 1 and 2 in series amounted to 90% and 84% at HLR of 20cm/day and 40cm/day, respectively. TOC and DOC removal efficiency amounted to 77% and 71% at a HLR of 20cm/day, but decreased to 72% and 67% at a HLR of 40cm/day, respectively. The highest log removal of Escherichia coli, Salmonella sp. and total coliforms amounted to 3.68, 3.50 and 3.95 at a HLR of 20cm/day respectively. The overall removal of pollutants increased with infiltration depth, with the highest pollutant removal efficiency occurring in the top 15cm layer. Grey water pre-treatment followed by double filtration using coarse and fine media has the potential to reduce the grey water pollution load in slum areas by more than 60%.

On-site sanitation provisions in urban slums rarely prioritise grey water management, yet it forms the largest fraction of wastewater. This study was carried out to characterise grey water and quantify its pollutant loads in Bwaise III (Uganda) and to provide data for grey water management in urban slums of developing countries. Samples were collected for analysis from ten representative households as well as from four tertiary drains and the main drainage channel for 7 months in two dry seasons. Grey water production was found to comprise 85 % of the domestic water consumption. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) concentration in the grey water generated by laundry, in the kitchen and in the bathroom was 9,225 ± 1,200 mg L⁻¹, 71,250 ± 1,011 mg L⁻¹ and 4,675 ± 750 mg L⁻¹, while the BOD₅ (biochemical oxygen demand) to COD ratio was 0.24 ± 0.05, 0.33 ± 0.08 and 0.31 ± 0.07, respectively. The maximum concentration of Escherichia coli and total coliforms was 2.05 × 10⁷ cfu (100 mL)⁻¹ and 1.75 × 10⁸ cfu (100 mL)⁻¹, respectively, in grey water from the bathroom, while that of Salmonella spp. was 7.32 × 10⁶ cfu (100 mL)⁻¹ from laundry. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed a significant difference in the concentration of COD, total suspended solids (TSS), total organic carbon (TOC), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), total phosphorus (TP), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), oil and grease, and Salmonella spp. in grey water from laundry, bathroom and kitchen (p < 0.05). The high loads of COD (>500 kg day⁻¹), TSS (>200 kg day⁻¹), nutrients (8.3 kg TKN day⁻¹ and 1.4 kg TP day⁻¹) and microorganisms (10⁶ to 10⁹ cfu c⁻¹day⁻¹) originating from grey water in Bwaise III show that grey water poses a threat to the environment and a risk to human health in urban slums. Therefore, there is a need to prioritise grey water treatment in urban slums of developing countries to achieve adequate sanitation.

Poor sanitation in urban slums results in increased prevalence of diseases and pollution of the environment. Excreta, grey water and solid wastes are the major contributors to the pollution load into the slum environment and pose a risk to public health. The high rates of urbanization and population growth, poor accessibility and lack of legal status in urban slums make it difficult to improve their level of sanitation. New approaches may help to achieve the sanitation target of the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 7; ensuring environmental sustainability. This paper reviews the characteristics of waste streams and the potential treatment processes and technologies that can be adopted and applied in urban slums in a sustainable way. Resource recovery oriented technologies minimise health risks and negative environmental impacts. In particular, there has been increasing recognition of the potential of anaerobic co-digestion for treatment of excreta and organic solid waste for energy recovery as an alternative to composting. Soil and sand filters have also been found suitable for removal of organic matter, pathogens, nutrients and micro-pollutants from grey water.

Provision of sanitation solutions in the world's urban slums is extremely challenging due to lack of money, space, access and sense of ownership. This paper presents a technology selection method that was used for the selection of appropriate sanitation solutions for urban slums. The method used in this paper takes into account sustainability criteria, including social acceptance, technological and physical applicability, economical and institutional aspects, and the need to protect and promote human health and the environment. The study was carried out in Bwaise III; a slum area in Kampala (Uganda). This was through administering of questionnaires and focus group discussions to obtain baseline data, developing a database to compare different sanitation options using technology selection criteria and then performing a multi-criteria analysis of the technology options. It was found that 15% of the population uses a public pit latrine; 75% uses a shared toilet; and 10% has private, non-shared sanitation facilities. Using the selection method, technologies such as Urine Diversion Dry Toilet (UDDT) and biogas latrines were identified to be potentially feasible sanitation solutions for Bwaise III. Sanitation challenges for further research are also presented.

Struvite crystallisation is a fast and reliable phosphorus removal and recovery process for concentrated waste streams - such as hydrolysed human urine. In order to optimise P-elimination efficiency, it is beneficial to obtain larger particle sizes: they are easier to separate and less prone to wash-out than smaller particles. This paper presents the results of a study on the effect of process parameters on particle size in a single step struvite precipitation. Crystals formed in batch experiments with real hydrolysed urine were shown to have an average size of >90 μm at pH 9 and 20 °C. This is reduced to 45 μm when changing stirrer type. Particle size increases with lower supersaturation. The results showed that under otherwise constant conditions, particle size decreases with lower temperature and has a minimum between pH 9 and 10. Deviating trends are observed at pH <8. Struvite formation in a CSTR (continuously stirred tank reactor) process was shown to be a reliable stable process that does not require any pH control. A method based on conductivity measurement is presented to estimate ionic strength, which is needed for equilibrium calculations.

Struvite (MgNH₄PO₄·6H₂O) precipitation eliminates phosphate efficiently from urine, a small but highly concentrated stream in the total flux of domestic wastewater. Precipitation experiments with hydrolysed urine evaluated the solubility product of struvite. The stored and fully hydrolysed urine had an ionic strength of between 0.33 and 0.56 M and required the estimation of activity coefficients. From our data, we identified the Davies approximation with the two constants A=0.509 and B=0.3 as agreeing best with our laboratory results. The standard solubility product K_s⁰=f₁[NH₄⁺]f ₂[Mg²⁺]f₃[PO₄^3-] ([ ]=concentration of the species; f_x=corresponding activity coefficient) of struvite in urine was found to be 10^{-13.26±0.057} at 25 °C and the enthalpy of struvite formation ΔH was 22.6(±1.1) kJ mol^-1. The equilibrium calculations required the following dissolved complexes: [MgCO₃]_aq, [MgHCO₃]⁺, [MgPO₄]^-, [NH₄HPO₄]^-, and [NaHPO₄]^- and to a lesser extent [MgSO₄]_aq and [NH₄SO₄]^-. Organic complexes do not seem to influence the solubility product substantially. For practical purposes, a conditional solubility product K_s^cond=[Mg_aq]·[NH₄ ⁺+NH₃]·[P_ortho]=10^-7.57 M³ was derived to calculate struvite solubility in urine at 25 °C, pH=9.0 and ionic strength I=0.4 M directly from measured concentrations.

Separating urine from wastewater at the source reduces the costs of extensive wastewater treatment. Recovering the nutrients from urine and reusing them for agricultural purposes adds resource saving to the benefits. Phosphate can be recovered in the form of struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate). In this paper, the behaviour of pharmaceuticals and heavy metals during the precipitation of struvite in urine is studied. When precipitating struvite in urine spiked with hormones and non-ionic, acidic and basic pharmaceuticals, the hormones and pharmaceuticals remain in solution for more than 98%. For heavy metals, initial experiments were performed to study metal solubility in urine. Solubility is shown to be affected by the chemical conditions of stored and therefore hydrolysed urine. Thermodynamic modelling reveals low or very low equilibrium solute concentrations for cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb). Experiments confirmed Cd, Cu and Pb carbonate and hydroxide precipitation upon metal addition in stored urine with a reaction half-life of ca. 7 days. For all metals considered, the maximum specific metal concentrations per gram phosphate or nitrogen showed to be typically several orders of magnitudes lower in urine than in commercially available fertilizers and manure. Heavy metals in struvite precipitated from normal stored urine could not be detected. Phosphate recovery from urine over struvite precipitation is shown to render a product free from most organic micropollutants and containing only a fraction of the already low amounts of heavy metals in urine.

In this article, we study the performance of international water management at Lake Titicaca in order to assess the empirical applicability of a new concept for measuring policy performance. This performance measurement concept (PER) is a function of three variables: optimum performance (OP), actual performance (AP), and counterfactual performance (CP). In examining the joint management of Lake Titicaca by Bolivia and Peru, we identify practical difficulties in applying PER and suggest extensions of the concept to assess uncertainty. We find that this measurement concept has several advantages: it takes into account counterfactual performance; the analysis can be performed in a structured, standardized, and transparent manner; and the formal framework allows for an assessment of uncertainty. Problems in applying the concept include: choice of attributes, identification of optimum performance, time-scale, and subjectivity of information. We conclude that, on balance, this approach is superior to other policy performance assessment measures developed to date.