In this study, we conduct a comprehensive history matching study for the FluidFlower benchmark model. This benchmark was prepared and organized by the University of Bergen, the University of Stuttgart, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, for promoting understanding of the complex physics of geological carbon storage (GCS) through in-house experiments and numerical simulations. This paper synthesizes the experiences of history matching the benchmark data encountered by the Delft-DARTS and CSIRO participants. History matching is first performed based on a low-dimensional-zonated structured model using a simple Poisson-like solver. The permeability of six facies and two faults is inferred in this stage to match the digitized concentration data. The history matching is then further enhanced to richer spatial and physical models to capture the spatial variation of permeability and buoyancy effects, using an unstructured grid. Efficient adjoint methods are used to evaluate the gradient used in the optimization of data misfits or equivalent Bayesian log-likelihoods. With efficient optimization methods available for both maximum a posteriori model inference and Randomized Maximum Likelihood methods for model uncertainty, we perform history matching using both binary and continuous concentration observations. The results show that the tracer plumes in the enriched model match the experimental plumes more accurately compared with the results from the parsimonious-zonated model. The history matching results based on the concentration observations provide more similar plume shapes compared with the case based on the binary observations. The permeability difference between the model before and after history matching reveals that the tracer plume zone and the high permeable zone are the regions of high sensitivity in terms of data misfit between the model response and observations. Surprisingly, CO ₂ concentration plume forecasts based on these history-matched models were not especially sensitive to the improvements observed in the enhanced model.

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In this work, we describe our decisions made to perform the FluidFlower simulation study and discuss various aspects of the benchmark that are different from our usual subsurface simulation practice. We will discuss the impact of various modeling choices on the outcomes of the simulation models, such as gridding, discretization, and solver strategies, and the lessons learned, taking into account the different conditions of the FluidFlower study compared to conditions commonly dealt with in subsurface simulation. We will start with a brief description of the DARTS framework utilized for compositional simulation, the thermodynamic and physical modeling related to the atmospheric CO2 -brine system, and the modeling workflow used in our benchmark submission. Additionally, we describe a custom nonlinear solver developed for the atmospheric benchmark conditions to improve convergence including the linear solver strategy since our default two-stage preconditioner does not perform effectively. To make meaningful comparisons between each of the modeling choices, we define a baseline model which is a simplified version of our setup in the main FluidFlower benchmark. The baseline model is then used to study the effect of Cartesian and unstructured meshes and a two-point flux approximation compared with a multi-point flux approximation for capturing the physics at play. We conclude our work with lessons learned and future recommendations.

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Successful deployment of geological carbon storage (GCS) requires an extensive use of reservoir simulators for screening, ranking and optimization of storage sites. However, the time scales of GCS are such that no sufficient long-term data is available yet to validate the simulators against. As a consequence, there is currently no solid basis for assessing the quality with which the dynamics of large-scale GCS operations can be forecasted. To meet this knowledge gap, we have conducted a major GCS validation benchmark study. To achieve reasonable time scales, a laboratory-size geological storage formation was constructed (the “FluidFlower”), forming the basis for both the experimental and computational work. A validation experiment consisting of repeated GCS operations was conducted in the FluidFlower, providing what we define as the true physical dynamics for this system. Nine different research groups from around the world provided forecasts, both individually and collaboratively, based on a detailed physical and petrophysical characterization of the FluidFlower sands. The major contribution of this paper is a report and discussion of the results of the validation benchmark study, complemented by a description of the benchmarking process and the participating computational models. The forecasts from the participating groups are compared to each other and to the experimental data by means of various indicative qualitative and quantitative measures. By this, we provide a detailed assessment of the capabilities of reservoir simulators and their users to capture both the injection and post-injection dynamics of the GCS operations.

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In this work, we present a unified framework for the simulation of CO₂ sequestration problems at various time and space scales. The parametrization technique utilizes thermodynamic state-dependent operators expressing the governing equations for the thermal-compositional-reactive system to solve the nonlinear problem. This approach provides flexibility in the assembly of the Jacobian, which allows straightforward implementation of advanced thermodynamics. We validate our simulation framework through several simulation studies including complex physical phenomena relevant to CCUS. The proposed simulation framework is validated against a set of numerical and experimental benchmark tests, demonstrating the efficiency and accuracy of the modeling framework for CCUS-related subsurface applications. Important physical phenomena resulting from the complex thermodynamic interactions of CO₂ and impurities with reservoir fluids can be accurately captured now in detailed dynamic simulation. The investigated simulation scenarios include a reproduction of lab experiments at the core scale, investigation of macro-scale analog model and simulation of large-scale industrial application. The simulation time can also span from hours to years among various applications. Complex thermal-compositional-reactive phenomena can be addressed at each of these space and time scales. The unified thermodynamic description allows us to perform all these simulations for a reasonable CPU time due to advanced parametrization techniques and efficient GPU capabilities in our in-house reservoir simulator DARTS.

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During injection of supercritical CO2 into saline aquifers or depleted gas reservoirs, the complex interaction of CO2 and impurities with reservoir fluids plays a very important role and can significantly alternate the injectivity. Brine evaporation into the CO2-rich phase can lead to salt precipitation which will reduce the effective permeability of the porous rock. A tangible cooling of the near-wellbore region due to the Joule-Thomson effect can lead to hydrate formation which will reduce injectivity even more. Complex phase behavior of supercritical CO2 with brine and hydrocarbon components in highly heterogeneous porous media accompanied by all these phenomena will strongly affect pressure distribution which is in turn related to mechanical risks.

In this work, we present a unified simulation framework for modelling near-wellbore effects induced by supercritical CO2 injection developed in the Delft Advanced Research Terra Simulator (DARTS) platform. This framework uses the Operator-Based Linearization (OBL) technique for incorporating all complex physical phenomena in a fully coupled fully implicit manner. A general multicomponent multiphase flash based on a combination of classic cubic equations of state (e.g., Peng-Robinson) for hydrocarbon/CO2-rich phases and an activity model for the aqueous phase is implemented. Hydrate phase behavior is modelled using a modified Van der Waals-Platteeuw hydrate equation of state. Formation dry-out and salt precipitation are incorporated by using the Element Balance approach coupled with thermodynamics. Thermophysical property correlations relevant to the thermodynamic conditions of interest are implemented and validated against lab experiments.

We demonstrate that all important physical phenomena, such as the Joule-Thomson effect, hydrate formation and salt precipitation can be effectively captured by the OBL approach. We use several existing numerical benchmarks to validate the accuracy of the developed framework in the dynamic representation of all these effects. The interplay between these complex phenomena and reservoir heterogeneity is demonstrated in an unstructured heterogeneous near-wellbore reservoir model.@en