Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease of Public Health importance affecting over 252 million people worldwide with Nigeria having a very high number of cases. It is caused by blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma and transmitted by freshwater snails. To achieve the current global elimination objectives, low-cost and easy-to-use diagnostic tools are critically needed. Recent innovations in optical and computer technologies have made handheld digital and smartphone-based microscopes a viable diagnostic approach. Development, validation and deployment of these diagnostic devices for field use, however, require the optimisation of its optical train for the registration of high-resolution images and the realisation of a robust system design that can be locally produced in low-income countries. Field research conducted in Nigeria with active involvement of key stakeholders in research and development (RD) led to the design of an initial prototype device for the diagnosis of urinary schistosomiasis, called Schistoscope 1.0. In this paper, we present further development of the Schistoscope 1.0 along two parallel design trajectories: A Raspberry Pi and a Smartphone-based Schistoscope. Specifically, we focused on the optimization of the optics, embodiment design and the electronics systems of the devices so as to produce a robust design with potential for local production.

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Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease of Public Health importance affecting over 252 million people worldwide with Nigeria having a very high number of cases. It is caused by blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma and transmitted by freshwater snails. To achieve the current global elimination objectives, low-cost and easy-to-use diagnostic tools are critically needed. Recent innovations in optical and computer technologies have made handheld digital and smartphone-based microscopes a viable diagnostic approach. Development, validation and deployment of these diagnostic devices for field use, however, require the optimisation of its optical train for the registration of high-resolution images and the realisation of a robust system design that can be locally produced in lowincome countries. Field research conducted in Nigeria with active involvement of key stakeholders in research and development (R&D) led to the design of an initial prototype device for the diagnosis of urinary schistosomiasis, called Schistoscope 1.0. In this paper, we present further development of the Schistoscope 1.0 along two parallel design trajectories: a Raspberry Pi and a Smartphone-based Schistoscope. Specifically, we focused on the optimization of the optics, embodiment design and the electronics systems of the devices so as to produce a robust design with potential for local production.@en

Schistosomiasis is one of the Neglected Tropical Diseases that affects over 200 million people worldwide, of which 29million people in Nigeria. The principal strategy for schistosomiasis in Nigeria is a control and elimination program which comprises a school-based Mass Drug Administration (MDA)with limitations of high re-infection rates and the exclusion of high-risk populations. TheWorld Health Organization (WHO) recommends guided case management of schistosomiasis (diagnostic tests or symptom-based detection plus treatment) at the Primary Health Care (PHC) level to ensure more comprehensive morbidity control. However, these require experienced personnel with sufficient knowledge of symptoms and functioning laboratory equipment. Little is known aboutwhere, bywhom and how diagnosis is performed at health facilities within the case management of schistosomiasis in Nigeria. Furthermore, there is a paucity of information on patients' health-seeking behaviour from the onset of disease symptoms until a cure is obtained. In this study, we describe both perspectives in Oyo state, Nigeria and address the barriers using adapted health-seeking stages and access framework. The opportunities for improving case management were identified, such as a prevalence study of high-risk groups, community education and screening, enhancing diagnostic capacity at the PHC through point-of-care diagnostics and strengthening the capability of health workers.

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Schistosomiasis is a treatable and preventable neglected tropical disease of Public Health importance affecting over 200 million people worldwide while Nigeria is one of the high burden countries. Currently, available diagnostic tests are cumbersome, low in sensitivity and not field-adaptable given the high skills required that are not available in the rural settings where the diseases are majorly prevalent. There is an urgent need for an easy to use automated diagnostic device to replace the current gold standard, the human-operated microscope. Many promising automated diagnostic technologies are under development. However, a good understanding of the real needs within the local healthcare context is crucial in order to develop and implement a new health diagnostic device. Too often, there is a mismatch between what is needed and what is developed. A target product profile can guide the R&D process in matching with the needs in the local healthcare context. The goal of this project is to combine gaps in the healthcare system and needs from stakeholders with technological possibilities in order to develop a target product profile for a diagnostic device for S. haematobium for specific healthcare scenarios in Nigeria. @en

Schistosomiasis is a treatable and preventable neglected tropical disease of Public Health importance affecting over 250 million people worldwide while Nigeria is one of the high burden countries. Currently available diagnoses are cumbersome, low in sensitivity and not field-adaptable given the high skill required that are not available in the rural settings where the diseases are majorly prevalent. Democratizing access to diagnosis with a rapid, easy-to-use, accurate diagnosis is critical in currently stepped-up control, pre-elimination and elimination strategies for urinary schistosomiasis. In this paper, we describe the design process of a low-cost smartphone-based microscope for rapid diagnosis of urinary Schistosomiasis. Field research conducted in Nigeria with the active involvement of key stakeholders in the research and development (RD) process validated our assumptions and enabled the development of our proof-of-concept into a working prototype in three iterative designs steps. Through this design process, we investigated the local development of technical optics for good quality imaging and explored the simplification of sample preparation techniques using commonly available materials. Starting from the first iteration, the output of each design step was used as the input to the subsequent iterations to optimize our system design. Insightful results and input from the field demonstrated that an adaptive design approach was needed to facilitate the rapid development and deployment of point-of-care diagnostic devices for use in low-resource settings. It is our goal that these devices will be locally manufactured in Nigeria to expand access to the test given her huge population and high disease burden, quick repairs, and easy maintenance on the field.

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In low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), diagnostics are not always available in remote areas. Hospitals and healthcare centres are often too far from the community, and waiting times are up to a few hours even for relatively simple procedures. Moreover, travelling to the healthcare centre and taking the diagnostic test is frequently unaffordable. Point of Care Tests (POCTs) can improve the availability, accessibility and affordability of the diagnostics by providing the test at the time and place of patient care. Although many POCTs have been developed already, there remain challenges to enable the healthcare workers (HCW) and the patients to use the device in practice. In this paper, we aim to provide a systemic overview of the barriers and opportunities for the adoption of use and acceptance of the results of POCTs based on the literature. The barriers and opportunities were clustered into six themes and used to draw out recommendations for the future design.

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Schistosomiasis is a treatable and preventable neglected tropical disease of Public Health importance affecting over 250 million people worldwide while Nigeria is one of the high burden countries. Currently available diagnoses are cumbersome, low in sensitivity and not field-adaptable given the high skill required that are not available in the rural settings where the diseases are majorly prevalent. Democratizing access to diagnosis with a rapid, easy-to-use, accurate diagnosis is critical in currently stepped-up control, pre-elimination and elimination strategies for urinary schistosomiasis. In this paper, we describe the design process of a low-cost smartphone-based microscope for rapid diagnosis of urinary Schistosomiasis. Field research conducted in Nigeria with the active involvement of key stakeholders in the research and development (R&D) process validated our assumptions and enabled the development of our proof-of-concept into a working prototype in three iterative designs steps. Through this design process, we investigated the local development of technical optics for good quality imaging and explored the simplification of sample preparation techniques using commonly available materials. Starting from the first iteration, the output of each design step was used as the input to the subsequent iterations to optimize our system design. Insightful results and input from the field demonstrated that an adaptive design approach was needed to facilitate the rapid development and deployment of point-of-care diagnostic devices for use in low-resource settings. It is our goal that these devices will be locally manufactured in Nigeria to expand access to the test given her huge population and high disease burden, quick repairs,and easy maintenance on the field.@en