Flooding, one of the costlier climate change disasters, has emerged as a pressing global challenge, growing in frequency and severity. The traditional reliance on government intervention alone to protect households from flooding is not enough. An essential shift in perspective underscores the need for households themselves to become proactive participants in multi-level protection strategies. To achieve this, drivers of vulnerability shaping household adaptation to flooding are explored, focusing on social, physical and perceived vulnerabilities. Furthermore, examining these vulnerabilities on a local scale is crucial and a knowledge gap, as it is at this level that household adaptation predominantly occurs.

Recognising the varying manifestations of these vulnerabilities depending on the flood-prone location, this study prioritises the examination of disparities in vulnerability profiles between two representative cities: Jakarta, representing the Global South, and Houston, representing the Global North. By doing so, this research contributes significantly to the ongoing scientific discourse on climate change adaptation, as well as assist in extrapolating gained insights to data-scarce regions. This research aims to assists in aligning flood management efforts more closely with the needs and concerns of the residents in each city, acknowledging the distinct perceptions of flood hazards and socio-economic disparities. This, in turn, lays the groundwork for the development of targeted support and interventions, fostering more inclusive and resilient communities capable of mitigating the impacts of flooding and adapting to future challenges. The primary research question driving this study is as follows: 'How are social, physical and perceived vulnerabilities that influence flood adaptation different among households in an urban space?' To answer this question comprehensively, the research employs a multi-faceted approach, examining each vulnerability dimension separately before exploring their interactions in the urban context.

Comparing the social, physical and perceived vulnerability maps for Jakarta in the context of flooding uncovered many discrepancies and complexities that contribute to the scientific debate surrounding flood adaptation. The disparities between these dimensions highlight the need for a comprehensive approach to vulnerability assessment and flood mitigation. By recognising that vulnerability is not solely determined by physical factors, but also influenced by social dynamics and individual perceptions, authorities can develop strategies that foster community resilience and enhance disaster preparedness. Therefore, this research recommends addressing mismatches in risk perception, understanding the nuanced distribution of vulnerabilities and implementing context-specific interventions in order to build a safer and more resilient world in the face of flooding and other environmental challenges.