Climate change effects are not uniform and have disproportionate impacts among different groups of people within communities. It is therefore important to understand the underlying issues of intersectionality for climate change adaptation and human well-being. This paper aims to measure human capabilities and freedom of choice by analyzing perceived climate change impacts and current climate change adaptation ability among ethnic and non-ethnic communities in Bangladesh. This study applies a range of participatory rural appraisal tools and key informant interviews to assess impacts of climate change when considering gender and ethnicity. Women in the coastal regions have less access to resources and services because of social capital and cultural practices and this directly or indirectly influences their adaptation to climate change. Women have limited or no participation in decision-making processes at family or community levels and this impacts their vulnerability and well-being. In consequence, women’s capabilities must be focused on moderating their vulnerability and risk, and developing effective adaptation to the adverse impacts of climate change and natural hazards.@en

The need for improved energy security in Nigeria cannot be over-emphasized. Currently, energy security is rather poor, while access to energy is fundamental to socio-economic development and poverty alleviation. Renewable energy could potentially contribute to resolving this because renewable sources such as solar radiation are more available and sustainable, and can be set up in small generation units, meaning that it is suitable for community management and ownership. In theory, a community energy approach could well apply. In this paper, the main research question is: In what ways can community energy initiatives contribute to increasing the use of renewable energy sources and improving energy security in Nigeria according to selected stakeholders and households? A mixed methods research approach was used to answer this question, with stakeholder interviews and survey data from 124 residents in two case studies of selected housing estates in Lagos. The results show that 58% of the households and most of the stakeholders express support for community renewable energy as a viable approach for increasing energy access and greening energy supply. The present study shows that there is a need to raise awareness and support projects for effective and supportive renewable energy policy to encourage local renewable energy community formation.@en

Renewable energy communities (RECs) might be an interesting new stakeholder in stimulating home energy‐saving efforts by tenants and homeowners due to their potential of raising awareness locally and gaining public support for low‐carbon energy and energy‐savings projects, because RECs are often locally sited, in close social proximity of residents, and are already part of local structures and share local institutions. This comes with many benefits since they already have a reputation locally, a social history with the local community, and can be trusted by the latter. This makes them potentially better suited than other—often less‐trusted—parties (i.e., government and business companies) to use their agency to encourage sustainable change. The article builds on empirical data from the EU Horizon 2020 project REScoop Plus, using a mixed‐methods research approach, including desk research, expert interviews, validation workshops, and multiple surveys among RECs in six EU member states about energy‐saving actions implemented, and their effectiveness in terms of raising awareness, influencing the intention to save energy, and actual energy‐saving behaviour. This article provides more insight into the assessment of actions and measures for coaching householders to achieve energy savings and low carbon goals. In addition, it shows the potential of using RECs as a new strategy to address home energy savings in the current housing stock, including options to improve the energy performance thereof. @en

The Introduction chapter positions the goal and central questions of the volume in relevant academic debates surrounding the growing academic domain of community energy. It introduces the concept of ‘energy communities’ against the background of the EU's “Clean energy for all Europeans” package. Four general observations on developments in community energy are made and discussed. The central question in this volume is: How did renewable energy communities in continental Europe evolve, and what can be learned from these experiences for the realization and implementation of the Clean Energy Package? To help answering this question four sub-questions are formulated that are related to the four observations made. These observations are then discussed, more particularly based on revised EU directives, in particular the Renewables Directive and the Electricity Directive, and what they imply for the community energy movement. This forms the basis of the volume.@en

Next to encouraging local residents to adopt solar panels or buy wind park shares energy communities have a role in stimulating home energy savings. In this chapter two questions are addressed: (1) How do energy communities encourage their members and others to do this? And (2) To which extent are energy communities effective in doing so? Results show that energy communities - often organized in renewable energy cooperatives (REScoops) - influence local households in three ways: via membership, general engagement activities, or specific dedicated measures. And rarely do energy communities operate alone. They are supported by intermediary agents, and it is not uncommon that they cooperate with local government to co-produce energy saving services. Empirical studies indicate that energy communities are well positioned and fairly capable of encouraging households to save energy—ranging between 4–6 per cent.@en

This chapter discusses the key question of the volume about how renewable energy communities in continental Europe have evolved, and what can be learned from these experiences for the realisation and implementation of the Clean Energy Package (CEP). It builds on all chapters of the volume in which authors have addressed this question in one way or another. This chapter also addresses the four sub-questions based on the observations introduced in Chap. 1. The transposition of the CEP into national legislation will change many regular and financial-economic conditions in the European Union Member States. However, this volume was published too early to give a final answer to the question on how countries fared in adopting community issues from the CEP into their national legislations and regulatory frameworks. This chapter provides insights in problems that are essential to the survival and upscaling of renewable energy communities that will be addressed by transposing of the CEP into National legislation and also provides insights into problems that will likely remain barriers.@en

Adaptation is an essential part of climate change policy. In areas where impacts are likely to be severe, migration is considered to be an adaptation option. In Bangladesh coastal areas migration due to climate change is contingent on people’s freedom of choice at individual and household level. Following Amartya Sen’s capability approach, we argue that there should be a line drawn between migrations by free choice versus forced migration. Sen’s capability approach focuses on the importance of people’s freedom of choice to act, and the ability to achieve what they consider valuable in their life. In this paper, we use an extensive empirical work engaging 22 focus groups discussions (8–12 individuals in each group) and 14 Key Informants Interviews in South-West Bangladesh to elicit how freedom of choice changes with the economic class and social status of an individual. Using these data we apply Sen’s capability approach to understand the role of the freedom of choice when considering migration as an adaptation option. We argue that the capability approach is essential in revealing a thin border between migration as a (planned) adaptation option and forced migration.@en

Little is known about how renewable energy cooperatives (REScoops) try to influence energy conservation among households and the resulting impact. In this article the main research question is: What is the predictive value of renewable energy cooperatives on intention to save energy, engagement in energy-saving actions, and self-reported energy conservation by households? A survey was conducted to answer this question. Data analysis involved multivariate and binary logistic regression on data from two cooperatives: Ecopower (Belgium; N = 1000) and Enercoop (France; N = 8290). Results show that in addition to psychological and socio-demographic variables, REScoop items modestly contribute to the explained variation in engagement in energy-saving actions and reported energy conservation. At Enercoop 18.2% of the respondents indicated that their cooperative contributed to household energy savings; for Ecopower this figure was 36.9%. Moreover, at Enercoop, 38.7% of the respondents reported consuming less energy since obtaining cooperative membership; at Ecopower this was 64.7%. The article concludes with suggestions for future research. @en

Evidence from academic studies that analyze social and institutional factors that influence success with community energy projects is scarce. To address this, we pose the question: What are the social, organizational, and governance factors that explain success with ‘local low-carbon energy initiatives’ (LLCEIs)? To answer this question, claims were first established pertaining to three groups of social factors: i.e. (i) those related to the LLCEI itself; (ii) factors related to the interaction between an LLCEI and the local community; and (iii) the presence of supportive governance settings and linkages with local government and intermediaries. These were analyzed using a variable-oriented cross-case design involving fourteen LLCEIs in the Dutch Province of Fryslân. Results show that there is a difference in the sets of factors that positively correlate with various measures of LLCEI success. Factors related to the LLCEI (i.e. internal organizational factors) correlate with collective energy projects and to a lesser extent with individual projects realized. Items related to interactions of the LLCEI with the local community primarily correlate with the customer base and to a lesser extent with individual projects realized. Finally, items related to the governance setting correlate most strongly with individual projects realized.@en

Recent scholarly attention shows that grassroots civil society low-carbon energy initiatives increasingly become part of the subnational climate change governance landscape. Despite their potency in view of consumer-owned distributed generation and enhanced citizen influence in the organization of the energy infrastructure, local low-carbon energy initiatives (LLCEIs) struggle to become viable alternatives to the centralized, private oriented energy system. To further LLCEI development, support needs to build their capacities; alleviate institutional hurdles and barriers stemming from the fossil fuel-based energy regime; and open up the system for the uptake, acceptance or breakthrough of LLCEIs. Evidence suggests that so-called "intermediaries" form a part of the solution in addressing these issues. Despite previous attempts at analyzing intermediary roles and activities vis-à-vis the development of community energy, the reality of the various roles and strategies intermediaries can employ and the support LLCEIs require to further develop have not yet been synthesized in a comprehensive analytical framework. This article aims to fill this gap by developing such a framework. We reflect on the analytical framework by evaluating the intermediary support structure in a specific case: the Province of Fryslân. From the analysis, we conclude that the Frisian case provided modest support to the claim that intermediary support is effective in addressing the needs of LLCEIs as the strategies and roles observed represent a complete and coherent support structure.@en

Renewable Energy-Supplying cooperatives (REScoops) are cooperatives of renewable energy producers and/or consumers, which are under formulation in the emerging European smart grid. Their emergence highlights the importance of proconsuming green energy and simultaneously puts forward principles such as energy democracy and self-consumption, assists the fight against energy poverty, and helps reduce GHG emissions. To this end, the incorporation of scientific and technological solutions into the REScoops’ everyday business and practices, is key for improving these practices and assessing their potential benefits, and as such for enabling them to deliver the maximum possible gains to their members and society at large. This chapter outlines three key axes of scientific research and solutions that can be used for REScoops, namely, (a) a statistical analysis, (b) an applied behavioural analysis, and (c) an artificial intelligence/machine learning one. Also presented are results and lessons learned from providing such solutions to European REScoops as part of the H2020 REScoop Plus project.@en

In recent years cooperatives for renewable energy supply (REScoops) have emerged as important new actors in energy markets. They provide their members (i.e., households) with renewably generated energy within a cooperative model that enables members to co-decide on its strategic and tactical goals, plans and business model. REScoops do not only collectively own renewable energy production facilities and supply this to their members. They also use their specific position as energy suppliers to take several actions to persuade their members (households) to engage in energy conservation. Because of their particular organisational and business model as citizens’ initiatives REScoops are in theory well positioned for activities to influence and help their members conserve energy. This particularly has to do with REScoops being in close proximity of their members, which enables them to intervene and influence social structures and social norms. In a previous paper by the authors arguments were presented why and how REScoops do this, presenting a number of policy measures they engage in to persuade their members to conserve energy. Moreover, a number of measures were discussed that have actually been undertaken by REScoops [1]. Although this study disclosed information on the aims, the working mechanism (‘policy theory’), the scope of, and a few experiences with these measures it revealed little about their impact in terms of household energy savings. In this paper we tap into this issue and pay attention to the evaluation of a number of measures implemented by REScoops. The main research question therefore is how the implementation of selected policy measures by REScoops is experienced by REScoop members, and whether these measures contribute to (self-) reported household energy savings? The measures that will be assessed in this study include both antecedent strategies (i.e. information, awareness making campaigns, workshops, tailored advice ), consequence strategies (i.e. online platform with feedback on energy consumption, billing ) and combinations of those (i.e. integrated, ‘package approaches’ ). The research of this paper is based on a survey conducted in the period of March-July 2018, among seven REScoops in six EU nations; i.e. Coopérnico (Portugal), Enostra (Italy), Ecopower (Belgium), Enercoop (France), EBO (Denmark), SEV (Southern Tyrol, Italy) and SOM energia (Spain). It comprises one of the few quantitative studies on REScoops in particular and community energy in general, and is thus far the only one that analyses assesses REScoop interventions, in particular on their influence on household energy conservation behaviour. The analysis of survey data uses a ‘modus operandi’ approach to reveal evidence vis-à-vis the claim that the measures implemented explain for (self-reported) energy savings among households, and counter evidence to alternative explanations. Following this approach a number ways to assess the impact of the measures implemented by REScoops on energy consumption behaviour by households will be conducted; i.e., energy saving actions undertaken by households, and (self-reported) energy savings among households comparing between experiment and control groups (using independent sample T-tests). In addition, data on perceived contribution of the measure to (self-reported) energy savings, and satisfaction with the measure will be analysed. We also analyse the statistical relation between psychological variables, demographics and household energy conservation (using correlation coefficients analysis). Next to the quantitative analysis of the survey data qualitative insights regarding the implementation of selected REScoop measures will be collected and analysed. Following this triangulation of data we judge whether policy measures implemented by REScoops can be deemed effective interventions to stimulate household energy conservation. This paper contributes to (a) the growing body of literature on REScoops as emerging actors in the energy domain, (b) to the growing body of literature of social innovation (i.e., social intervention) in energy transitions, and (c) to the body of literature in environmental psychology that studies the impact of different types of intervention strategies on household energy consumption and conservation [2]. The research methodology and results presented in this paper are part of the H2020 - REScoop Plus Project. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon-2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 696084. @en

Cooperatives for renewable energy supply (REScoops) provide their members renewably generated energy within a cooperative model that enables members to co-decide on the cooperative’s future. REScoops do not only collectively own renewable energy production facilities and supply this to their members, they also use their specific position as energy suppliers to take several actions to persuade their members to save energy. Although the activities that REScoops undertake to some extent resemble those of other organizations, because of their particular organisational and business model as citizens initiatives, the cooperative model, REScoops are supposed to be very well positioned for activities to influence and help their members to save energy. The paper discusses arguments why the REScoop model in energy supply can be an important contributor to reduce energy use by their members. Further this paper discusses measures that have been undertaken by REScoops studied in the REScoop Plus project. We use some illustrative examples to discuss if REScoops are in a relatively good position to take certain measures and succeed in persuading customers to lower their energy consumption level and elaborate on future experiments to explore the proposition that REScoop members save more energy due to actions of these REScoops towards their members. @en

REScoops are cooperatives of renewable energy producers and/or consumers, which have begun to form in the emerging European Smart Grid. According to the Federation of REScoops in Europe (REScoop.eu), there are currently more than 2,397 REScoops, collectively having more than 650,000 members. As such, their emergence highlights the importance of producing and consuming green energy, and simultaneously puts forward principles such as energy democracy and self-consumption, assists the fight against energy poverty, and reduces Greenhouse Gas emissions. A core objective of the H2020 REScoop Plus project is to promote a better understanding and cultivate the behavioural change of the cooperatives’ engagement. In order for this goal to be met, it was essential to conduct a careful logging of and statistical analysis over the energy data stored by the REScoops, as well as the current state of their engagement in energy efficiency. Such tasks are imperative in order to support the claim that REScoop engagement promotes energy sobriety; and associate consumption reduction with specific behaviours, ICT tools, and Energy Efficiency practices. In this paper, we present the logging and statistical analysis conducted in REScoop Plus, and their results. Specifically, we outline the methodology used for formulating a comprehensive format for collecting the datasets for statistical analysis, a process that involved a lengthy and fruitful interaction with REScoops and their data experts; the extracted requirements for that common format; and the detailed guidelines communicated to the REScoops in order to enable data acquisition and analysis. Finally, we present a summary of the collected data (relating to electricity and heating consumption, demographics, etc.); the detailed statistical analysis process used; and the results of this analysis. @en

REScoops are well positioned to spur energy savings among householders and generate investment in renewable energy projects. As compared to other agents in energy markets they have many benefits, particularly their embeddedness in local, social structures. In this paper we explore in which ways, and by using which tools and interventions REScoops exploit this assumed advantage. The main research question in this paper is: ‘Which interventions and policies do REScoops use to persuade their members to lower energy consumption and invest in renewable energy? The question is answered by making an inventory and analysing practices of REScoop federations across six EU nation states. Next to providing information on the scope of the measures taken illustrative case studies are presented to provide in-depth insights into the ways REScoops use intervention strategies. Interventions and tools retrieved are clustered using psychological and policy oriented classifications. Data collection involved expert interviews, expert workshops, a survey, and collection of information on best practice instruments. Results of the analysis reveal that REScoops deploy a broad scope of tools and interventions, using both antecedent and consequence strategies. Consequence strategies (i.e. feedback) used typically rely on the use of technology, i.e. smart metering or an online platform. REScoops that just start off are keen to use antecedent strategies (i.e. awareness raising campaigns), whereas the more mature REScoops also use consequence strategies, but often in combination with the former. In using these interventions and tools the REScoops are well positioned locally to engage with householders, which helps to get more commitment and be supportive to the needs of the latter in learning how to use the tools. Results from trials organized by REScoops show promising signs in terms of householders actually lowering their energy consumption levels. Whether the interventions are really effective is still to be seen in future, more systematic, intervention research.@en