The environmental emergency is one of the most critical challenges of modern times. The exponential increase of industrial activities is the primary cause of anthropogenic climate change, with negative consequences for the environment, society and economy. In the transport sector, decarbonization is the most significant challenge. In aviation, the environmental objectives are to halve international CO2 emissions by 2030, and to reach net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. The achievement of these goals implies a step-change in the traditional practice of aircraft design, with many resources invested in research for promoting the use of fossil fuel-free propulsion systems and electrified auxiliary systems.

In this framework, the research presented in this dissertation is on methods for automated design optimization with applications to a novel electrically-driven Environmental Control System (ECS) for aircraft cabin cooling. The ECS is the main consumer of non-propulsive power onboard aircraft. The founding idea of the project, which has been carried out in collaboration with several companies, is to replace the traditional ECS equipping airliners, which is based on Air Cycle Machine (ACM) technology, with Vapour Compression Cycle (VCC) systems powered by high-speed centrifugal compressors. Work performed within this project demonstrated that such a VCC-based ECS can be more efficient and lighter than an ACM-based ECS in the case of mainstream passenger airplanes. The main goal of the research documented in this dissertation is to provide design methods and guidelines for the optimal design of aircraft ECS whose core is a VCC system powered by novel high-speed electrically-driven compressors and using low-Global Warming Potential (GWP) working fluids in place of the conventional R-134a refrigerant. Additionally, the study encompasses the analysis of the impact of the selected working fluid on the optimal design of the main system components, i.e., the heat exchangers and the centrifugal compressor. For this purpose, a novel integrated design optimization framework has been developed: it allows to perform the multi-objective optimization of the aircraft ECS across different points of the aircraft operating envelope. This method enables the concurrent automated optimization of thermodynamic cycle, preliminary component sizing and working fluid selection. Moreover, the successful application of the method to this complex case demonstrates that the approach is generally applicable to any thermal energy conversion system.

The method was applied to the design of the ECS of two different aircraft to demonstrate its capabilities: a large passenger rotorcraft and a single-aisle short-haul aircraft, i.e., the A320. Results show that it is possible to design an efficient VCC system for aircraft ECS that is powered by an electrically-driven centrifugal compressor and uses low-GWP refrigerants as working fluids. In particular, in the case of a small-capacity ECS for large rotorcraft, it was demonstrated that the use of high-molecular complexity refrigerants, such as haloolefins, enables the design of lighter and more efficient VCC systems if compared to the state-of-the-art. The test case of the airliner ECS provided the specifications to further develop and test the methodology: a so-called physics-based equation of state model was adopted for the computation of the thermodynamic properties of the working fluid. Molecular parameters allow to define the fluid, therefore they can be optimized as part of the global optimization of the design of the system. Parameters are constrained so as to define a realistic molecule, though non-existing, called pseudo-fluid. Actual working fluids whose molecular parameters are similar to those of the optimal pseudo-fluid}are selected in a following step of the design procedure. Optimal working fluids are therefore natural refrigerants. The use of these working fluids with null GWP would reduce the environmental footprint of the considered environmental control systems, while enabling an (albeit small, in the considered case) reduction of specific fuel consumption.

Complementary to the numerical investigation, a novel experimental setup called IRIS (Inverse organic Rankine cycle Integrated System) was designed, realized and successfully commissioned at the Propulsion & Power laboratory of Delft University of Technology. The setup was conceived to enable testing and performance analysis of VCC-based aircraft ECS and to validate in-house software for system and components design. The setup hosts two main test sections: one to test compressors and another to test air-cooled condensers. The results of the commissioning show that it is possible to continuously operate the IRIS setup in steady-state conditions at temperature levels which are very close to those at the design point, thus achieving a Coefficient of Performance (COP) equal to 3.76±0.48. @en

The aircraft Environmental Control System (ECS) is the primary consumer of non-propulsive power at cruise conditions, hence, its performance optimization is crucial for the reduction of specific fuel consumption. A novel integrated system design optimization method is presented: thermodynamic cycle, component sizing and working fluid are taken into account simultaneously. This method was applied to the ECS of large rotorcraft based on a Vapour Compression Cycle system electrically driven by a high-speed centrifugal compressor. Steady-state and lumped parameter system component models have been developed using the Modelica acausal modelling language. The optimization design framework consists of an in-house code, featuring a Python-Modelica interface. The study case refers to a critical operating condition: the helicopter is on the ground during a hot and humid day. The working fluid is R-134a. The multi-objective optimization targets the maximization of the system efficiency and the minimization of system weight. The results show that more efficient systems can be designed only with heavier components. The design feasibility of high-speed centrifugal compressors is demonstrated. The advantage of an integrated system design optimization framework for complex energy systems is proved, allowing for the analysis of the impact of both component design and working fluid on system performance.

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