Digital fabrication technologies, such as 3D concrete printing, are currently making their way into the construction industry. The primary focus in this field is often on the depositing processes, such as extrusion 3D concrete printing, where material is typically applied in horizontal planar layers. This area has seen substantial progress in recent years. However, numerous research and development projects are specifically targeting the additive manufacturing of unreinforced raw concrete components. When implementing these technologies in practice, it has become clear that additional processes, such as fully automated process-parallel reinforcement integration, application of cover layers and formative and subtractive post-processing of the components, are essential for successful application. In addition, by varying the orientation, characteristics and arrangement of the layers, new shapes and functions can be realised. Examples include angled layer orientation for producing vaulted geometries without support structures, as well as non-planar layer formation for complex component geometries or assembly joints. Moreover, alternative innovative manufacturing processes, such as KnitCrete, Smart Dynamic Casting or Injection 3D Printing, reveal new potential for the application of digital manufacturing technologies in the construction industry. This article aims to demonstrate the possibilities offered by digital fabrication with concrete beyond the stacking of horizontal planar layers, and how these technologies can complement and expand a future digital fabrication strategy in the construction industry.

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The need for methods for forming concrete has existed for as long as concrete has been used in constructing the built environment. Creating flat, rectilinear formers have traditionally been the cost and time efficient default for the majority of applications. The desire for greater design freedom and the drive to automate construction manufacturing is providing a platform for the continued development of a family of processes called Digital Fabrication with Concrete (DFC) technologies. DFC technologies are many and varied. Much of the material science theory is common, but the process steps vary significantly between methods, creating challenges as we look towards performance comparison and standardisation. Presented here is a framework to help identify and describe process differences and a showcase of DFC application case studies that explain the processes behind a sub-set of the technologies available.@en

Earth is one of the oldest and till now intensively used natural building material. Around 30% of the world population still lives or works in buildings constructed out of earth. Most of them dwell in simple huts of rural communities or traditionally hand-crafted buildings. However, a growing number of people looking for healthy, environmentally friendly buildings in so called developed societies experience benefits of earthen construction materials. Due to the hygrothermal potential of clay, these benefits of earthen constructions include evaporative cooling during cooling periods and stable relative humidity levels indoors during the heating season. In addition, earthen building materials may contribute to the urgently needed circular economy, as earthen constructions like earth blocks or earth dry boards are reusable and earth plasters and mortars are replasticisable through the addition of water, as long as no chemical binder is added. Research gaps regarding physical properties, missing standardisation concerning building law and modern construction methods, and a limited number of manufacturers are hindering a wide application of earthen construction worldwide. Meanwhile, new digital production techniques evolve, which may elicit the potential of earth as future building material. Therefore, this Ten Questions article presents the state-of-the art and research gaps related to earth as building material in light of the potential of new digital production techniques like robotic fabrication or additive manufacturing. Such discussion includes new opportunities to combine the natural performance of the material with future-oriented construction systems and a new growing circular economy.

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Digital Fabrication with Concrete (DFC) encompasses 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) and many other methods of production. DFC is emerging from an era of invention and demonstration to one where the merits of one principle over another needs to be quantified systematically. DFC technologies vary in characteristics, complexity and maturity which hampers the synthesis of research and comparisons of performance. The interdependence of design geometry, material properties and process characteristics is well recognised. Materials research has made significant progress in recent years and there have been many applications with varying design geometries demonstrated. Far less has been done to guide the definition and description of the processes used. This work takes a step forward by presenting classification and process description guidance for DFC. The approach was developed by engaging a broad cross-section of the international community through the activities of the RILEM Technical Committee 276 between 2016 and 2020.

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