The next frontier in communications is teleoperation - manipulation and control of remote environments with haptic feedback. Compared to conventional networked applications, teleoperation poses widely different requirements, ultra-low latency (ULL) is primary. Realizing ULL communication demands significant redesign of conventional networking techniques, and the network infrastructure envisioned for achieving this is termed as Tactile Internet (TI). The design of meaningful performance metrics is crucial for seamless TI communication. However, existing performance metrics fall severely short of comprehensively characterizing TI performance due to their inability to capture how well sensed signals are reproduced. We take Dynamic Time Warping(DTW) as the basis of our work and identify necessary changes for characterizing TI performance. Through substantial refinements to DTW, we design Effective Time- and Value-Offset (ETVO) - a new method for measuring the fine-grained performance of TI systems. Through an in-depth objective analysis, we demonstrate the improvements of ETVO over DTW. Through subjective experiments, we demonstrate that existing QoS and QoE methods fall short of estimating the TI session performance accurately. Using subjective experiments, we demonstrate the behavior of the proposed metrics, their ability to match theoretically derived performance, and finally, their ability to reflect user satisfaction in a practical setting.

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Tactile Internet (TI) envisions communicating haptic sensory information and kinesthetic feedback over the network and is expected to transfer human skills remotely. For mission-critical TI applications, the network latency is commonly mandated to be between 1-10 ms, due to the sensitivity of human touch, and the packet delivery ratio to be 99.99999%, failing which can lead to catastrophic outcomes. However, with humans-in-the-loop, their dexterity and adaptability to varying responses to stimuli under different network conditions, measuring the performance of a TI session only with latency and packet losses are insufficient and presents an incorrect representation of the experience of the TI application. To develop an objective measure of the quality of TI sessions, we propose a framework that models TI applications as networked control systems, including humans-in-the-loop. We derive a closed-form expression for measuring the difference between the application performance in ideal and non-ideal network conditions. Based on Weber’s law of Just Noticeable Difference, we provide a metric called TIM to estimate the impact of the network on haptic feedback. We implemented TIM on multiple applications on a TI testbed to show that our approach is feasible and TIM strongly follows real subjective measurements. Further, we propose a channel compensation spring based on TIM, to alleviate the network conditions’ negative effects. We demonstrate the efficacy of the channel compensation spring in improving the user experience. We also present implementation notes for TI application developers.

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The pioneering field of tactile Internet (TI) will enable the transfer of human skills over long distances through haptic feedback. Realizing this demands a roundtrip latency of sub-5 ms. In this work, we investigate the capability of Wi-Fi 6 and existing TI scheduling/multiplexing schemes in meeting this stringent latency constraint. Taking the concrete example of the state-of-the-art video-haptic multiplexer (VH-multiplexer), we highlight the pitfalls of relying on the existing Wi-Fi 6 systems for TI communication. To circumvent this, we propose video-tactile latency scheduler (ViTaLS) - a novel link layer framework for tuning the video-tactile frame transmissions to suit their heterogeneous Quality of Service requirements. We present a mathematical model to characterize the packet transmission duration of ViTaLS. Using a custom simulator, we validate our model and measure the objective performance improvement of ViTaLS over VH-multiplexer. We also present ViTaLS-optimal - a variant of ViTaLS, for further 4 reducing the tactile latency. Objectively, we show that ViTaLS-optimal yields a latency improvement of up to 82 %. Based on experiments conducted on a real TI testbed, we subjectively demonstrate that ViTaLS-optimal outperforms the VH-multiplexer.

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Tactile Internet (TI) enables the transfer of human skills over the Internet, enabling teleoperation with force feed-back. Advancements are being made rapidly at several fronts to realize a functional TI soon. Generally, TI is expected to faithfully reproduce operator's actions at the other end, where a robotic arm emulates it while providing force feedback to the operator. Performance of TI is usually characterized using objective metrics such as network delay, packet losses, and RMSE. Pari passu, subjective evaluations are used as additional validation, and performance evaluation itself is not primarily based on user experience. Hence objective evaluation, which generally minimizes error (signal mismatch), is oblivious to subjective experience. In this paper, we argue that user-centric designs of TI solutions are necessary. We first consider a few common TI errors and examine their perceivability, The idea is to reduce the impact of perceivable errors and exploit the imperceivable errors to our advantage, while the objective metrics may indicate that the errors are high. To harness the imperceivable errors, we design Adaptive Offset Framework (AOF) to improve the TI signal reconstruction under realistic network settings. We use AOF to highlight the contradictory inferences drawn by objective and subjective evaluations while realizing that subjective evaluations are closer to ground truth. This strongly suggests the existence of 'blind spots of objective measures'. Further, we show that AOF significantly improves the user grade, up to 3 points (on a scale of 10) compared to the standard reconstruction method.

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Autonomous vehicles have created a sensation in both indoor and outdoor applications. The famous indoor use-case is process automation inside a warehouse using Autonomous Indoor Vehicles (AIV). These vehicles need to locate themselves not only with an accuracy of a few centimeters but also within a few milliseconds in an energy-efficient manner. Due to these challenges, localization is a holy grail. In this paper, we propose FEEL – an indoor localization system that uses a fusion of three low-energy sensors: IMU, UWB, and radar. We provide detailed software and hardware architecture of FEEL. Further, we propose Adaptive Sensing Algorithm (ASA) for optimizing for localization accuracy and energy consumption of FEEL by adjusting the sensing rate to the dynamics of the physical environment in real-time. Our extensive performance evaluation over diverse test settings reveals that FEEL provides a localization accuracy of sub-7 cm with an ultra-low latency of around 3 ms. Additionally, ASA yields up to 20% energy savings with only a marginal trade off in accuracy. Furthermore, we show that FEEL outperforms state of the art in indoor localization.@en

The next frontier for immersive applications is enabling sentience over the Internet. Tactile Internet (TI) envisages transporting skills by providing ultra-low-latency (ULL) communications for transporting touch senses. In this work, we focus our study on the first/last mile communication, where the future generation WiFi-7 is pitched as the front-runner for ULL applications. We discuss a few candidate features of WiFi-7 and highlight its major pitfalls with respect to ULL communication. Further, through a specific implementation of WiFi-7 (vanilla WiFi-7) in our custom simulator, we demonstrate the impact of one of the pitfalls - the standard practice of using jitter buffer in conjunction with frame aggregation - on TI communication. To circumvent this, we propose the Non-Buffered Scheme (NoBuS) - a simple MAC layer enhancement for enabling TI applications over WiFi-7. NoBuS trades off packet loss for latency, enabling swift synchronization between the master and controlled domains. Our findings reveal that employing NoBuS yields a significant improvement in RMSE of TI signals. Further, we show that the worst case WiFi latency with NoBuS is 3.72 ms - an order of magnitude lower than vanilla WiFi-7 even under highly congested network conditions.

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In this letter, we present Hermes - a novel, low-cost, wireless, batteryless, energy harvesting system for aerial vehicles for sensing wind speed and Angle of Attack (AoA) concurrently. Hermes comprises a set of piezoelectric films which flutter due to incoming wind and the characteristics of this aeroelastic flutter are utilized for determining the wind speed and AoA of the head-wind. Note that in our work we restrict the notion of flutter to high frequency oscillations due to incoming air flow. Hermes consists of five piezoelectric flags that are mounted on rigid clamps specifically placed at different angles. We designed Hermes to maximize the sensing performance and energy harvesting capability simultaneously, without compromising either accuracy or harvesting efficiency. Our current prototype can harvest the power of 440 $\mu$W on average. Over a wide range AoA from $-10^{\circ }$ to $30^{\circ }$, the estimation of the wind speed is within 0.7 km/h error with 90% probability, and AoA error is within $1.2^{\circ }$ with 90% probability. Since Hermes necessitates no wires and batteries and is a low-cost sensor, it is well suited for a range of UAVs, gliders, and aircraft, which require flexible sensor placement and do not require new wiring, which is often complex in aircraft. Hermes is the first of its kind that exploits piezoelectric energy harvesting to simultaneously sense AoA and wind speed. This work is expected to open up new avenues for interdisciplinary research on embedded computing devices for aerospace applications.

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Tactile Internet promises a widespread adoption of haptic communication over the Internet. However, as haptic technologies are becoming more diversified and available than ever, the need has arisen for a plug-and-play (PnP) haptic communication over a computer network. This paper presents a system for enabling PnP communication of heterogeneous haptic interfaces. The system is based on three key features: (i) a haptic metadata to make haptic interfaces self-descriptive, (ii) a handshake protocol to automatically exchange haptic metadata between two communicating devices, and (iii) a multimodal (haptic-audio-visual) media communication protocol. Implemented using WebRTC, the PnP communication is evaluated using a Tele-Writing application with two heterogeneous haptic interfaces, namely Geomagic Touch and Novint Falcon. Our findings demonstrate the potential of the system to be employed in any Tactile Internet scenario.

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The next frontier in communications is teleoperation - manipulation and control of remote environments. Compared to conventional networked applications, teleoperation poses widely different requirements, ultra-low latency (ULL) being the primary one. Teleoperation, along with a host of other applications requiring ULL communication, is termed as Tactile Internet (TI). A significant redesign of conventional networking techniques is necessary to realize TI applications. Further, these advancements can be evaluated only when meaningful performance metrics are available. However, existing TI performance metrics fall severely short of comprehensively characterizing TI performance. In this paper, we take the first step towards bridging this gap. To this end, we propose a method that captures the fine-grained performance of TI in terms of delay and precision. We take Dynamic Time Warping (DTW) as the basis of our work and identify whether it is sufficient in characterizing TI systems. We refine DTW by developing a framework called Effective Time- and Value-Offset (ETVO) that extracts fine-grained time and value offsets between input and output signals of TI. Using ETVO, we present two quantitative metrics for TI - Effective Delay-Derivative (EDD) and Effective Root Mean Square Error. Through rigorous experiments conducted on a realistic TI setup, we demonstrate the potential of the proposed metrics to precisely characterize TI interactions.

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