Sentinel-1 observes the whole globe every 12 days (6 days when both satellites were operational) and provides a wealth of data relevant to agriculture. Sugarcane cultivators could potentially benefit from these data by using them to assist operational and management practices. However, first, thorough understanding is needed of Sentinel-1 backscatter and its behavior over sugarcane canopies. In this study, we aimed to improve understanding of how Sentinel-1 backscatter responds to sugarcane yield variability and waterlogging. In order to do so we focused on an irrigated sugarcane plantation in Xinavane, Mozambique. In the analysis presented, we assessed different polarizations, their ratio, and benchmarked them against optical indices and passive microwave observations in different seasons. With the help of a large sugarcane yield dataset, we analyzed how backscatter relates to sucrose yield variability in different seasons. We found VV backscatter related to the stalk development, the most important reservoir for sucrose accumulation. In addition, in a season with reported waterlogging, optical and radar observations showed a delay in sugarcane crop development. Further analysis showed the presence of water underneath the canopy caused an increase in all polarizations and the cross ratio (CR). The results imply that Sentinel-1 backscatter contains information on both waterlogging under the canopy as well as sucrose development in the stalk. By isolating and quantifying the impact of waterlogging on backscatter, it will be possible to further quantify sucrose development with backscatter observations and identify waterlogging simultaneously.

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Satellite sensors have been promoted widely as a technology to monitor crop canopies to encourage sustainable agriculture. Different remote sensing technologies are able to detect crop stress and water shortages, with a special emphasis on water stress. Improving water and crop productivity goes hand in hand. Moreover, crop stress resulting from waterlogging leads to suboptimal crop productivity. However, this has so far received little attention in literature and, consequently, technological development. This is surprising because approximately twenty percent of the global agricultural land suffers from the consequences of waterlogging and secondary soil salinization. In this study we focus on an irrigated sugarcane plantation in southern Mozambique burdened by waterlogging. We show how Sentinel-1 backscatter and Planet NDVI can be used to monitor sugarcane development. Our results demonstrate Sentinel-1 backscatter is able to monitor sucrose development and, in addition, how waterlogging influences the radar signals in different growth stages. Consequently, we show the potential to monitor sugarcane development and waterlogging simultaneously.@en

Waterlogging is an increasingly important issue in irrigated agriculture that has a detri-mental impact on crop productivity. The above-ground effect of waterlogging on crops is hard to distinguish from water deficit stress with remote sensing, as responses such as stomatal closure and leaf wilting occur in both situations. Currently, waterlogging as a source of crop stress is not considered in remote sensing-based evaporation algorithms and this may therefore lead to erroneous interpretation for irrigation scheduling. Monitoring waterlogging can improve evaporation models to assist irrigation management. In addition, frequent spatial information on waterlogging will provide agriculturalists information on land trafficability, assist drainage design, and crop choice. This article provides a scientific perspective on the topic of waterlogging by consulting literature in the disciplines of agronomy, hydrology, and remote sensing. We find the solution to monitor waterlogging lies in a multi-sensor approach. Future scientific routes should focus on monitoring waterlogging by combining remote sensing and ancillary data. Here, drainage parameters deduced from high spatial resolution Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) can play a crucial role. The proposed approaches may provide a solution to monitor and prevent waterlogging in irrigated agriculture.

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In this study the impact of sucrose accumulation in Sentinel-1 backscatter observations is presented and compared to Planet optical observations. Sugarcane yield data from a sugarcane plantation in Xinavane, Mozambique are used for this study. The database contains sugarcane yield of 387 fields over two seasons (2018-2019 and 2019-2020). The relation between sugarcane yield and Sentinel-1 VV and VH backscatter observation is analyzed by using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data as derived from Planet Scope optical imagery as a benchmark. The different satellite observations were compared over time to sugarcane yield to understand how the relation between the observations and yield evolves during the growing season. A negative correlation between yield and Cross Ratio (CR) from Sentinel-1 backscatter was found while a positive correlation between yield and Planet NDVI was observed. An additional modeling study on the dielectric properties of the crop revealed how the CR could be affected by sucrose accumulation during the growing season and supported the opposite correlations. The results shows CR contains information on sucrose content in the sugarcane plant. This sets a basis for further development of sucrose monitoring and prediction using a combination of radar and optical imagery.@en

Irrigation requirements are mostly determined by estimating the atmospheric evaporative demand, in combination with precipitation data to estimate the irrigation need per field. However, in case of a high groundwater table, the contribution of capillary rise is often not taken into account. Nevertheless, this flux can contribute significantly to the actual evaporation. Ignoring this flux in irrigation practices might lead to over-irrigation and reduced yields. The significance of the groundwater flux in a furrow irrigated sugarcane plantation in Mozambique with a shallow groundwater table is presented here. Groundwater levels in a sugarcane plantation in Xinavane in Mozambique were recorded in several fields for a duration of six months. The groundwater recordings, potential evaporation estimates from satellite remote sensing, and field data were combined in the Vegetation-AtMosPhere-Soil water model (VAMPS) that was set up to understand the effect of groundwater contribution on the actual evaporation of a sugarcane field. With the hydrological field representations set up, we analyzed whether the current furrow irrigation requirement in the plantation, of 1350 mm/year for furrow irrigation, is efficient. The results show that groundwater contribution to the transpiration flux reduces the need for irrigation in the study area. As such, we conclude that the current irrigation requirement is leading to over-irrigation. The incorporation of the groundwater contribution is needed to provide adequate estimations for irrigation. A reduction in irrigation for these fields will lead to a higher water productivity in the study area.

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