Conservation and restoration of salt marsh ecosystems are becoming increasingly important because of the many ecosystem services they provide. However, the processes controlling salt marsh establishment and persistence, especially on bare tidal flats in muddy areas, remain unclear. As muddy sediments typically experience a restriction of soil drainage, we expect that a surface drainage relief due to a heterogeneity topography, as might occur on the edge of tidal channels, can facilitate the establishment of salt marsh vegetation on muddy tidal flats. By means of a manipulative field experiment, using “Mega-Marsh Organ” mesocosms, we investigated the impact of surface drainage and elevation relative to mean sea level on (1) the survival of Spartina anglica seedlings from three different age classes: 1-yr, 3-month, and 1-week; and (2) the growth performance of mature S. anglica marsh tussocks. S. anglica seedling survival, especially in the establishment phase, was positively affected by better surface drainage, increases of seedling age, and higher elevation relative to mean sea level. That is, the survival rate of S. anglica seedlings at the end of 6th week increased from 0% (at surface water undrained, 1-week, 0 cm elevation) to 94.44% (at surface water drained, 1-yr, 90 cm elevation). In contrast, surface drainage did not affect the performance of large S. anglica marsh tussocks, as only increased elevation relative to mean sea level was shown to affect S. anglica tussock growth in terms of plant height, shoot numbers, and dry biomass. Based on our findings, we proposed a conceptual model to understand how surface drainage-driven feedbacks in a heterogeneous topography may be reinforced to induce salt marsh establishment in muddy systems. Further testing of present hypothesized model would be beneficial for insights into salt marsh establishment on tidal mudflats.

Many organisms rely on chemical signals and cues to determine habitat suitability and safety. Chemical signals can mediate many interactions, including those between predators and their prey. Altering prey behaviour, these non-consumptive effects (NCEs) can influence population and community dynamics. Understanding how NCEs influence early life history stages, such as ‘decisions’ of benthic species with planktonic larvae about where to settle, can provide useful information on the ecological functioning of these systems as well as the management for commercial usage, although most studies have so far focused on intertidal systems which are already subject to a set of stressful conditions. With a shallow subtidal field experiment we investigated NCEs of the common starfish Asterias rubens on one of its main preys, the blue mussels Mytilus edulis. We tested the hypotheses that (1) the presence of starfish reduces mussels settlement and that (2) the mussels that settle will invest more energy towards induced defences than to growth, and will thus remain smaller than mussels settling in an area without starfish. Two independent trials revealed a significant reduction of mussel spat on the collectors in the presence of starfish after a two-week deployment period. There was however no effect of starfish on the size distribution of the mussel spat. The delayed observation of effects of starfish, absent after the first week but evident afterwards, suggests a time dependency of NCE's on spat settlement. Harnessing this ecologically important information has the potential to increase yield of mussel seeds available for fisheries by either removing starfish from the ground-based settling areas at the onset and for the duration of spatfall or by using floating substrates that are away from the bottom-bound starfish. Moreover, these results also underlines the potential of using predator cues in the application for sustainable natural antifouling compounds in situations with low recruitment pressures.

Spatial patterns formed through the process of self-organization are found in nature across a variety of ecosystems. Pattern formation may reduce the costs of competition while maximizing the benefits of group living, and thus promote ecosystem persistence. This leads to the prediction that self-organizing to obtain locally intermediate densities will be the optimal solution to balance costs and benefits. However, despite much evidence documenting pattern formation in natural ecosystems, there is limited empirical evidence of how these patterns both influence and are influenced by tradeoffs between costs and benefits. Using mussels as a model system, we coupled field observations in mussel-culture plots with manipulative laboratory experiments to address the following hypotheses: 1) labyrinthine spatial patterns, characteristically found at intermediate to high patch densities, are the most persistent over time; this is because labyrinthine patterns 2) result in adequately heavy patches that can maximize resistance to dislodgement while 3) increasing water turbulence with spacing, which will maximize food delivery processes. In the field, we observed that labyrinthine ‘stripes’ patterns are indeed the most persistent over time, confirming our first hypothesis. Furthermore, with laboratory experiments, we found the ‘stripes’ pattern to be highly resistant to dislodgement, confirming the second hypothesis. Finally, with regards to the third hypothesis, we found positive effects of this pattern on local turbulence. These results suggest that the mechanisms of intraspecific facilitation not only depend on initial organism densities, but may also be influenced by spatial patterning. We hence recommend taking into account spatial patterns to maximize productivity and persistence in shellfish-cultivation practices and to increase the restoration success of ecosystems with self-organizing properties.

Self-organized spatial patterns occur in many terrestrial, aquatic, and marine ecosystems. Theoretical models and observational studies suggest self-organization, the formation of patterns due to ecological interactions, is critical for enhanced ecosystem resilience. However, experimental tests of this cross-ecosystem theory are lacking. In this study, we experimentally test the hypothesis that self-organized pattern formation improves the persistence of mussel beds (Mytilus edulis) on intertidal flats. In natural beds, mussels generate self-organized patterns at two different spatial scales: regularly spaced clusters of mussels at centimeter scale driven by behavioral aggregation and large-scale, regularly spaced bands at meter scale driven by ecological feedback mechanisms. To test for the relative importance of these two spatial scales of self-organization on mussel bed persistence, we conducted field manipulations in which we factorially constructed small-scale and/or large-scale patterns. Our results revealed that both forms of self-organization enhanced the persistence of the constructed mussel beds in comparison to nonorganized beds. Small-scale, behaviorally driven cluster patterns were found to be crucial for persistence, and thus resistance to wave disturbance, whereas large-scale, self-organized patterns facilitated reformation of small-scale patterns if mussels were dislodged. This study provides experimental evidence that self-organization can be paramount to enhancing ecosystem persistence. We conclude that ecosystems with self-organized spatial patterns are likely to benefit greatly from conservation and restoration actions that use the emergent effects of self-organization to increase ecosystem resistance to disturbance.