Urbanization is one of the important drivers of increasing local temperatures. As cities and urban areas evolve, extensive land use and land cover (LULC) changes alter the physical characteristics of surface materials. This modification results in reduced evapotranspiration rates, ultimately contributing to higher surface and air temperatures. This study investigated the impact of urbanization on urban temperature in Jakarta. Urban temperature was simulated for a 20-year time period (1995–2014) by the urban boundary layer climate model UrbClim, using LULC data for both 1995 and 2014. Temperature changes were analysed by assessing the temperature anomaly across different LULC change classes divided into four main classes namely no built-up changes (BB), no green spaces changes (GG), built-up to green spaces (BG), and green spaces to built-up (GB). The study revealed that the conversion of green spaces to built-up areas (GB) had the most significant impact on the increase in air temperature. This was indicated by the mean values of the temperature anomaly of GB of about 0.24°C followed by GG, BB, and BG with the mean values of the temperature anomaly of about 0.20°C, 0.19°C, 0.17°C, respectively. The different temperature anomalies of the LULC change classes indicate that green spaces have an important role in maintaining local climate. Hence, it is important for local government to effectively manage the composition, the quantity, as well as the distribution of green spaces within a city. By looking at temperature anomalies of LULC change classes, the present study provides an alternative approach to many existing methods that provide general information about temperature changes, without specifically analyzing the effects of LULC transformations.@en

The increasing global population and in-country migration have a significant impact on global land use land cover (LULC) change, which reduces green spaces and increases built-up areas altering the near-surface radiation and energy budgets, as well as the hydrological cycle over an urban area. The LULC change can lead to a combination of hazards such as increasing urban temperatures and intensified rainfall, ultimately resulting in increased flooding. This present study aims to discuss the changing pattern in urban temperature, daily rainfall, and flooding in Jakarta. The daily urban temperature and daily rainfall were based on a 30-year dataset from three meteorological stations of Jakarta in the period between 1987 and 2013. The changing trend was analyzed by using the Mann–Kendall and the Pettitt’s tests. The relation between daily rainfall and flooding was analyzed using a 30-year flooding dataset collected from several sources including the international disaster database, research, and newspaper. The results show that there was an increasing trend in the daily temperature and the daily rainfall in Jakarta. The annual maximum daily temperature showed that an increasing trend started in 2001 at the KMY station, and in 1996 at the SHIA station. In general, the highest annual maximum daily temperature was about 37 °C, while the lowest was about 33 °C. Moreover, the maximum daily rainfall started increasing from 2001. An increase in the maximum daily rainfall was observed mainly in January and February, which coincided with the flood events recorded in these months in Jakarta. This indicates that Jakarta is not only vulnerable to high urban temperature but also to flooding. While these two hazards occur in distinct timeframes, there is potential for their convergence in the same geographical area. This study provides new and essential insights to enhance urban resilience and climate adaptation, advocating a holistic approach required to tackle these combined hazards.@en

Increasing global population and domestic migration have a significant impact on global land-use and land-cover (LULC) changes. Global LULC changes in recent times led to a reduction in vegetation cover within all types of ecosystems, which are potentially linked to human activities. LULC changes are not only affecting the quantity of green spaces but also the pattern of green spaces, which are becoming more fragmented and scattered into smaller areas. Those changes would influence the hydrological cycle resulting in a decrease in urban ecosystem services leading to an increase in various natural hazards, for instance, high urban temperature and urban flooding. Ecosystem services are the varied benefits to humans from the natural environment and healthy ecosystems. In an urban area, ecosystem services include temperature regulation, carbon storage, water regulation, and recreation. An increase in urban temperature is mainly related to a decrease in evapotranspiration, while urban flooding is related to a decrease in infiltration, a decrease in flow resistance, and a reduction in rainfall interception. Furthermore, high urban temperatures and urban flooding might occur in two different time periods, but they can occur in the same area.....@en

Risk-informed flood risk management requires a comprehensive and quantitative risk assessment, which often demands multiple (thousands of) river and flood model simulations. Performing such a large number of model simulations is a challenge, especially for large, complex river systems (e.g., Mekong) due to the associated computational and resource demands. This article presents an efficient probabilistic modeling approach that combines a simplified 1D hydrodynamic model for the entire Mekong Delta with a detailed 1D/2D coupled model and demonstrates its application at Can Tho city in the Mekong Delta. Probabilistic flood-hazard maps, ranging from 0.5 to 100 year return period events, are obtained for the urban center of Can Tho city under different future scenarios taking into account the impact of climate change forcing (river flow, sea-level rise, storm surge) and land subsidence. Results obtained under present conditions show that more than 12% of the study area is inundated by the present-day 100 year return period of water level. Future projections show that, if the present rate of land subsidence continues, by 2050 (under both RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 climate scenarios), the 0.5 and 100 year return period flood extents will increase by around 15- and 8-fold, respectively, relative to the present-day flood extent. However, without land subsidence, the projected increases in the 0.5 and 100 year return period flood extents by 2050 (under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) are limited to between a doubling to tripling of the present-day flood extent. Therefore, adaptation measures that can reduce the rate of land subsidence (e.g., limiting groundwater extraction), would substantially mitigate future flood hazards in the study area. A combination of restricted groundwater extraction and the construction of a new and more efficient urban drainage network would facilitate even further reductions in the flood hazard. The projected 15-fold increase in flood extent projected by 2050 for the twice per year (0.5 year return period) flood event implies that the “do nothing” management approach is not a feasible option for Can Tho.

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Urbanization is changing land use–land cover (LULC) transforming green spaces (GS) and bodies of water into built-up areas. LULC change is affecting ecosystem services (ES) in urban areas, such as by decreasing of the water retention capacity, the urban temperature regulation capacity and the carbon sequestration. The relation between LULC change and ES is still poorly examined and quantified using actual field data. In most ES studies, GS is perceived as lumped areas instead of distributed areas, implicitly ignoring landscape patterns (LP), such as connectivity and aggrega-tion. This preliminary study is one of the first to provide quantitative evidence of the influence of landscape pattern changes on a selection of urban ecosystem services in a megacity as Jakarta, In-donesia. The impact of urbanization on the spatiotemporal changes of ES has been identified by considering connectivity and aggregation of GS. It reveals that LP changes have significantly de-creased carbon sequestration, temperature regulation, and runoff regulation by 10.4, 12.4, and 11.5%, respectively. This indicates that the impact of GS on ES is not only determined by its area, but also by its LP. Further detailed studies will be needed to validate these results.

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Urbanization continues to trigger massive land-use land-cover change that transforms natural green environments to impermeable paved surfaces. Fast-growing cities in Asia experience increased urban temperature indicating the development of urban heat islands (UHIs) because of decreased urban green space, particularly in recent decades. This paper investigates the existence of UHIs and the impact of green areas to mitigate the impacts of UHIs in Colombo, Sri Lanka, using UrbClim, a boundary climate model that runs two classes of simulations, namely urbanization impact simulations, and greening simulations. The urbanization impact simulation results show that UHIs spread spatially with the reduction of vegetation cover, and increases the average UHI intensity. The greening simulations show that increasing green space up to 30% in urban areas can decrease the average air temperature by 0.1 °C. On the other hand, converting entire green areas into urban areas in suburban areas increases the average temperature from 27.75 °C to 27.78 °C in Colombo. This demonstrates the sensitivity of UHI to vegetation cover in both urban and suburban areas. These seemingly small changes are average grid values and may indicate much higher impacts at sub-grid levels.

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