The increasing demand for critical raw materials like lithium, essential for clean energy technologies, presents both opportunities and challenges. Portugal, with Europe’s largest lithium reserves, faces resistance to establishing lithium mines in the Norte region due to insufficient citizen support and concerns about socio-environmental impacts. This thesis addresses the need for a comprehensive spatial strategy that guides the region’s transition from an extractivist lithium economy to a circular post-extractivist mode, while considering socio-environmental vulnerabilities and broader economic impacts.
The research involved developing a spatial strategy that integrates facilities for lithium extraction, processing, battery production, and recycling. Incorporating insights from analyzing the region’s conditions, the metabolic and spatial footprint of each facility in the supply chain, and proposing strategic locations for the facilities and their supporting and infrastructural systems. The strategy is designed to support both the extractivist and post-extractivist states, ensuring sustainable long-term development.
The key findings demonstrate that the proposed strategy effectively minimizes the nuisances of the extractive operations while supporting conditions for a circular post-extractivist state. In the extractivist state, facilities are efficiently located for lithium extraction, processing, and exportation. In the post-extractivist state are infrastructures repurposed for bio-based economies and lithium recycling, while promoting circularity and reducing reliance on new raw material extraction. The strategy enhances Europe’s independence in lithium supply, strengthens Portugal’s role in achieving green transition goals, fosters long-term circular development in the Norte region, and supports conditions in the Alto Tamega subregion for a circular bio-based economy that helps remediate the mining landscape, while connecting to the local economy and cultural identity, as well as creating additional income for these rural areas.
The findings show the set of key interventions – including urban development for (temporary) worker accommodations, infrastructural reinforcement and development, change in cultivation patterns, water and energy infrastructure development, and industrial development – that are necessary to shape the conditions that support both states. These set of interventions could inspire other European countries to establish the necessary extractivist landscapes progressively, ensuring circular long-term development. However, the thesis recommends, that future elaboration is necessary on engaging with local communities and refining the strategy through participatory methods to ensure successful implementation.

Excessive carbon emission has led to global warming, resulting in climate change. Due to this, the natural carbon and water cycles are disbalanced leading to extreme (water-related) events, such as flooding, periods of drought and diminished water quality. The degradation of ecosystems and threat to human survival are direct consequences of this process.


There is an urgency to act in the upcoming seven years to remain below the 1,5 degree global temperature rise. Aside from reducing CO2 emissions in long-term processes, carbon capturing is crucial to achieve short-term ambitions. Therefore, this study investigates the implementation of (nature-based) carbon sinks strategies, using water(bodies) as a tool, in North-West Europe..

This report fills the gap of knowledge on how to implement water-based decarbonization through spatial interventions in North-West Europe.
Firstly, the technical aspects of water-based decarbonization are studied by reviewing existing literature, providing the required spatial conditions for the implementation of water-related carbon sinks. The historical and current conditions in North-West Europe are mapped and analysed. Comparing these results, an evidence-based selection of feasible intervention areas are determined.


Our analysis shows that the EuroDelta is the strategic location for the spatial vision for North-West Europe. There is a need for a paradigm shift to restore the self-sustaining system of the Delta, demanding Nature Based Solutions. Wetland restoration is the most efficient, low cost approach of climate change mitigation as the free, well-functioning services of these carbon sinks naturally make way for long-term restoration of the natural balance and societal well-being. They should be restored in original historical sites and the Dutch Delta is suitable. Therefore bottom-up approaches are required in global visions as wetlands restoration is context-specific.

We conclude that de Krimpenerwaard polder and the Port of Rotterdam are effective, feasible, and inclusive solutions to tackle both climate change and societal challenges while providing long-term water-resilience and livability through all scales. Agricultural sectors will shift to sustainable farming and (port-)industries are held accountable for their emission. A limitation is the disregard on the emission of methane which in further research should be taken into account.