In spectral wave models, the nonlinear triad source term accounts for the transfer of energy to the bound higher harmonics. This paper presents an extension to commonly used spectral models that resolves the evolution of the bound wave energy by keeping track of the energy that has been bound by the triad interactions. This extension is referred to as the bound wave evolution (BWE) model. From this, the spatial evolution of the bound wave height is obtained, which serves as a proxy for the nonlinear wave shape. The accuracy of these bound wave heights, and thus wave shape predictions, is highly dependent on the accuracy of the triad source term. Therefore, in this study, the capability of the LTA and SPB triad formulations to capture the growth of the bound wave height is evaluated. For both of these formulations, it is found that slope dependent calibration parameters are required. Overall, despite being computationally more expensive, the SPB method proves to be significantly more accurate in predicting the bound wave evolution. In the shoaling zone, where the bound wave energy is dominated by triads, the BWE model is well capable of predicting the nonlinear wave’s shape. In the surf zone, however, where a combination of triads and wave breaking control the spectral evolution, the BWE model over-predicts the bound wave height. Nevertheless, this paper shows the promising capabilities of spectral models to predict the nonlinear wave shape.@en

Currents can affect the evolution of waves in nearshore regions through altering their wavenumber and amplitude. Including the effect of ambient currents (e.g., tidal and wind-driven) on waves in phase-resolving wave models is not straightforward as it requires appropriate boundary conditions in combination with a large domain size and long simulation duration. In this paper, we extended the non-hydrostatic wave-flow model SWASH with additional terms that account for the influence of a depth-uniform ambient current on the wave dynamics, in which the current field can be taken from an external source (e.g., from observations or a circulation model). We verified the model ability by comparing predictions to results from linear theory, laboratory experiments and a spectral wave model that accounts for wave interference effects. With this extension, the model was able to account for current-induced changes to the wave field (i.e., changes to the wave amplitude, length and direction) due to following and opposing currents, and two classical examples of sheared currents (a jet-like current and vortex ring). Furthermore, the model captured the wave dynamics in the presence of strong opposing currents. This includes reflections of relatively small amplitude waves at the theoretical blocking point, and transmission of breaking waves beyond the theoretical blocking point for larger wave amplitudes. The proposed model extension allows phase-resolving models to more accurately and efficiently simulate the wave dynamics in coastal regions with tidal and/or wind-driven flows.

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When waves propagate towards the coast, nonlinear interactions occur under the influence of decreasing water depth and variable ambient currents. This changes the initially harmonic wave shape into a nonlinear wave shape due to the presence of bound waves accompanying the freely propagating primary waves. The nonlinear wave shape ranges from skewed waves with steeper crests and flatter troughs to asymmetric waves where the wave front has pitched forward creating a saw-tooth wave shape at breaking. Analogous to the nonlinear surface elevation, also the near-bed orbital wave velocity is nonlinear. This results in a wave-shape driven sediment transport, generally directed in the direction of wave propagation. For accurate predictions of the sediment transport, it is thus important to know the wave shape. This is especially important in complex coastal systems with strong variations in bathymetry where wave-induced sediment transport gradients affect the subsequent morphological evolution. Therefore, this thesis focuses on measuring and modelling of the nonlinear wave shape....@en

A large-scale field campaign was carried out on the ebb-tidal delta (ETD) of Ameland Inlet, a basin of the Wadden Sea in the Netherlands, as well as on three transects along the Dutch lower shoreface. The data have been obtained over the years 2017-2018. The most intensive campaign at the ETD of Ameland Inlet was in September 2017. With this campaign, as part of KustGenese2.0 (Coastal Genesis 2.0) and SEAWAD, we aim to gain new knowledge on the processes driving sediment transport and benthic species distribution in such a dynamic environment. These new insights will ultimately help the development of optimal strategies to nourish the Dutch coastal zone in order to prevent coastal erosion and keep up with sea level rise. The dataset obtained from the field campaign consists of (i) single-and multi-beam bathymetry; (ii) pressure, water velocity, wave statistics, turbidity, conductivity, temperature, and bedform morphology on the shoal; (iii) pressure and velocity at six back-barrier locations; (iv) bed composition and macrobenthic species from box cores and vibrocores; (v) discharge measurements through the inlet; (vi) depth and velocity from X-band radar; and (vii) meteorological data. The combination of all these measurements at the same time makes this dataset unique and enables us to investigate the interactions between sediment transport, hydrodynamics, morphology and the benthic ecosystem in more detail. The data provide opportunities to calibrate numerical models to a high level of detail. Furthermore, the open-source datasets can be used for system comparison studies. The data are publicly available at 4TU Centre for Research Data at https://doi.org/10.4121/collection:seawad (Delft University of Technology et al., 2019) and https://doi.org/10.4121/collection:kustgenese2 (Rijkswaterstaat and Deltares, 2019). The datasets are published in netCDF format and follow conventions for CF (Climate and Forecast) metadata. The http://data.4tu.nl (last access: 11 November 2020) site provides keyword searching options and maps with the geographical position of the data.

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The nonlinear wave shape, expressed by skewness and asymmetry, can be calculated from surface elevation or pressure time series using bispectral analysis. Here, it is shown that the same analysis technique can be used to calculate the bound superharmonic wave height. Using measured near-bed pressures from three different field experiments, it is demonstrated that there is a clear relationship between this bound wave height and the nonlinear wave shape, independent of the measurement time and location. This implies that knowledge on the spatially varying bound wave height can be used to improve wave shape-induced sediment transport predictions. Given the frequency-directional sea-swell wave spectrum, the bound wave height can be predicted using second order wave theory. This paper shows that in relatively deep water, where conditions are not too nonlinear, this theory can accurately predict the bispectrally estimated bound superharmonic wave height. However, in relatively shallow water, the mismatch between observed and predicted bound wave height increases significantly due to wave breaking, strong currents, and increased wave nonlinearity. These processes are often included in phase-averaged wind-wave models that predict the evolution of the frequency-directional spectrum over variable bathymetry through source terms in a wave action balance, including the transfer of energy to bound super harmonics. The possibility to calculate and compare with the observed bound super harmonic wave height opens the door to improved model predictions of the bound wave height, nonlinear wave shape and associated sediment transport in large-scale morphodynamic models at low additional computational cost.

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Sustainable management of barrier islands and tidal inlet systems requires a knowledge of sediment transport pathways throughout the system. This paper places in situ suspended sediment observations (obtained using a LISST) in context with seabed sediment samples and hydrodynamic measurements to identify such pathways. The results indicate two distinct populations of sediment in suspension on the ebb-tidal delta: locally resuspended fine sand and (largely flocculated) mud exported from the Wadden Sea on ebb tide. This reinforces the notion of the strong dependence of sediment pathways on particle size. Future work will combine additional lines of evidence to better distinguish suspended sand from sand-sized flocs and provide a more robust definition of these pathways.@en

A combination of observations and modeling of wave-and current-related sediment transport at the ebb-tidal delta of Ameland, The Netherlands, has been used to examine the dominant sediment transport contributions shaping the ebb-tidal delta. The calibrated model shows a good comparison with the observations for a range of conditions. The results show distinctly different transport modes and directions for current and wave-dominated conditions respectively, with a significant contribution owing to the skewness of the waves emphasizing the importance of wave non-linearity in shaping the ebb-tidal delta.@en

Field measurements of waves and currents were obtained at ten locations on an ebb-tidal shoal seaward of Ameland Inlet for a six-week period. These measurements were used to investigate the evolution of the near-bed velocity skewness and asymmetry, as these are important drivers for wave-induced sediment tranport. Wave shape parameters were compared to traditionally used parameterizations to quantify their performance in a dynamic area with waves and tidal currents coming in from different directions over a highly variable bathymetry. Spatially and temporally averaged, these parameterizations compared very well to observed wave shape. However, significant scatterwas observed. The largest deviations fromthe parameterizationwere observed at the shallowest locations, where the contribution of wave-induced sediment transport was expected to be the largest. This paper shows that this scatter was caused by differences in wave-breaking, nonlinear energy transfer rate, and spatial gradients in tidal currents. Therefore, it is proposed to include the prior evolution of the wave before reaching a location in future parameterizations in numerical modeling instead of only using local parameters to predict wave shape.

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Coastal systems are influenced by a combination of waves and tides. In certain cases, tide-induced alongshore currents can be of similar order or even larger than wave-induced currents. Until now, however, no detailed wave-resolving modelling studies included tidal currents. This paper presents a method to implement alongshore tidal currents by adding a pressure term to the alongshore momentum balance and includes modifications to the numerical wave maker to allow for both waves and currents to be generated. The method is successfully validated by comparing simulations with and without inclusion of the tidal current to measurements obtained from the COAST3D data set. Wave prediction is equally good with and without the tidal implementation, but the alongshore current and its distribution over the cross-shore are much better predicted by the model with the new method.@en