Offshore wind energy has become a crucial element of the global energy transition, with the North Sea being a major hub for offshore wind farms. As first-generation farms approach the end of their operational life, decommissioning offshore wind export cables has emerged as a significant technical challenge. This thesis focuses on the feasibility and limitations of using the cable pullout method for decommissioning offshore wind export cables, particularly examining the influence of burial depth and soil conditions.

This research is structured in two main phases. The first phase involves a comprehensive literature review to identify critical knowledge gaps and establish an overview and understanding of existing decommissioning practices. The second phase employs simulations using OrcaFlex software to model and analyze various cable pullout scenarios. These simulations focus on determining the limits and constraints imposed by burial depth and soil relative density for sandy soils commonly found in the North Sea.

Key findings from the literature study underscore the complexities of decommissioning, which encompass legal, environmental, economic, and technical considerations. One of the main conclusions is the importance of adopting a 'design for decommissioning' approach during the initial cable installation. This involves designing cables and selecting burial depths that facilitate easier future removal, thus promoting sustainability and cost-effectiveness. Additionally, this approach can help mitigate potential environmental impacts and regulatory challenges associated with cable removal.

Soil modelling plays a crucial role in understanding how burial depth and soil conditions influence resistance forces during cable pullout. Factors such as shear strength and burial depth are analyzed to determine the forces that oppose cable recovery. The model includes scenarios for fully drained, fully undrained, and partially drained uplift resistance, implemented in a Python script to simulate real-time resistance during pullout operations. To address buried cables, an external soil model is integrated into OrcaFlex, allowing dynamic simulations of soil resistance during cable pullout.

The simulation results with a 525 kV HVDC export cable reveal how soil resistance significantly increases with greater burial depth and higher soil density. These findings highlight the critical importance of burial and soil conditions in planning decommissioning operations and suggest that additional deburial techniques may be necessary when cable pullout is not feasible.

This thesis provides valuable insights and recommendations for future research and practical applications, aiming to support the offshore wind industry's evolving needs and enhance the sustainability of decommissioning processes. These findings are crucial as the industry anticipates a substantial increase in decommissioning activities, with offshore wind capacity expected to continue to grow.

With an increasing shift to renewable energies, solutions are required to overcome that variability and unpredictability of power production that comes with it. Hydrogen is one solution that can overcome this issue since it can be produced using renewable energy through electrolysis, it can be transported to shore efficiently by pipelines and it can be stored, like natural gas. Not only can hydrogen be used as a way to store energy, but it can also be used directly as a basis for steel production and for long-distance transport. Using wind energy, specifically offshore wind farms, as the source for hydrogen is an idea that is gaining attention. Currently, wind turbines are electrically connected, bringing their electricity to shore by high-voltage cables, allowing hydrogen to be produced onshore. Hydrogen could however also be produced at a central location in the offshore wind farm or at each individual offshore wind turbine, removing the need for high-voltage cables. The purpose of this research is to explore different methods of hydrogen production and validate a model that can simulate each method. The goal is to be able to compare the different methods and quantify the losses of producing hydrogen offshore as opposed to onshore. A time-based simulation model has been developed to represent an offshore wind farm, which would either produce electricity or hydrogen, which eventually arrives onshore. High-resolution wind data are used to correctly include short-term fluctuations in wind output. The N.O. Jensen wake model is implemented to capture the wake effects. Since wake is typically modelled steady-state, specific attention has been given to include the moving of the wake through the wind park. The power outputs for each turbine in the model could be accurately determined based on the incoming wind data. It is found that the spatial effect reduces wind power variations at the wind farm level to about 22\% of first turbine in the sting, as expected. The output of the simulation model compares the power losses of producing hydrogen through four scenarios. This model uses a total of eleven wind turbine strings of seven 10 MW wind turbines each. The power output calculated would then be used to determine the amount of hydrogen produced. By applying electrical power loss equations and calculating the pressure drops for hydrogen traveling in a pipeline by assuming steady-state and isothermal, the losses are calculated for each scenario. A sensitivity study is performed to see the effects of changing model parameters on each of the different scenarios. The model developed in this thesis allows for comparison of electricity production and hydrogen production by offshore wind turbines. It is found that producing hydrogen at the wind farm level and then transporting hydrogen to the shore (Scenario 2) has lower overall energy losses (kg of hydrogen available on shore) than using electrical cables. The same goes for individual offshore hydrogen production (Scenario 3). A high-level exploration of the economics indicates that both scenarios 2 and 3 are more economically feasible when only looking at transportation costs. It is recommended that further research is done to be able to determine which method of hydrogen production would be the most effective by taking the transportation losses and economics into account.

Van Oord is active in the subsea cable installation industry and executes most of their cable lay projects with their cable laying vessel: The Nexus. In this thesis the focus lies on the normal lay phase of the cable installation, which comprises the phase when the vessel is pulling out the cable and putting it down on the seabed following the desired cable route. In order to ensure cable integrity during cable installation, a normal cable lay analysis is executed in the dynamic analysis software Orcaflex. The aim of the cable installation analysis is to define the installation limits in terms of the sea state. However, the vessel motions of the Nexus can be measured instantaneously and accurately on board of the vessel. Therefore, an assessment into the use of vessel motions for the expression of the handling limits during cable installation is performed. The assessment is executed for a normal lay configuration with an export cable and a 50 meter water depth. The focus lies on the maximum curvature and maximum tension response of the cable. The cable dynamics result from both the vessel motions and the direct cable loads. First, the effect of these phenomena is assessed independently with the use of Orcaflex simulations. The influence of the vessel motions on the cable dynamics is found to be low for short wave periods, as the vessel hardly reacts to these kinds of waves. As a result, vessel motion limit criteria are less suitable for expressing cable installation limits at less severe sea conditions. However, the handling limits of the cable are not likely to be exceeded during these kinds of sea states, therefore this does not directly prevent the use of vessel motion limit criteria. Next, the most suitable vessel motion, measured at the chute of the vessel, for application of vessel motion limit criteria is determined based on the time lagged cross correlations between the cable response and the vessel motions. By using this method, the vessel motion which is most linearly related to the cable response is selected. In the case study, the heave acceleration and axial acceleration of the vessel are identified as most suitable candidates for application of vessel motion limit criteria. Finally, the performance of the selected vessel motion as limit parameter is compared to the use of the wave elevation, equivalent to sea state limit criteria. The performance of both is assessed by a linear regression analysis of the peaks in the limit parameter time history and the associated peaks in the cable response. This analysis led to the conclusion that in the case study higher certainty can be given to vessel motion limit criteria compared to sea state limit criteria, which eventually can lead to an increase of the workability. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis is performed to identify if the selected vessel motion for the application of vessel motion limit criteria is sensitive to changes in the normal lay configuration. The selected vessel motion and accompanied magnitude of the correlation were prone to changes in the normal lay configuration. Therefore, the applicability of vessel motion limit criteria for the base case in this thesis cannot straightforwardly be generalised for other normal lay configurations. Due to the nonlinear nature of the cable lay system, all cable installation analysis are executed using time domain simulations in Orcaflex, which are associated with large computational time. In light of reducing the computational time for normal lay analysis, the potential use of a transfer function for estimation of the maximum cable response is evaluated. The transfer function is set up based on the first order frequency response of the cable system to regular waves. Before application of the transfer function approach, the nonlinear behaviour of the system is studied on the basis of the spectral response of the cable towards regular wave simulations in Orcaflex. Especially the contribution of the higher order frequency components and the effect of the nonlinear drag term in the Morison equation are addressed. In order to check the performance of the cable response transfer function, the maximum cable response estimation of the transfer function for a three hour time duration is compared to the statistical three hour maximum resulting from non-linear Orcaflex simulations. The transfer function is found to underestimate both the curvature and the tension response of the cable, leading to the conclusion that this transfer function approach is not suitable for the prediction of the maximum cable response. The underestimation is caused by the high dynamic complexity of the normal lay system.